The Impact of Demographic Factors, Beliefs, and Social Influences on Residential Water Consumption and Implications for Non-Price Policies in Urban India
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Area and Water Supply Description
3.2. Data Collection
3.3. Survey Design
3.4. Statistical Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Slum Results
4.2. Non-Slum Results
4.2.1. Connection and Supply
4.2.2. End Uses
4.2.3. Current Water-Conservation Behaviors and Technology
4.2.4. General Water Awareness, Self-Efficacy, and Social Norms
4.2.5. Water-Conservation Scenarios—Social Influences
4.3. Statistical Analysis of Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Survey Questions for Non-Slum Households
Household and Demographic Information | |||
1. | How many bedrooms does your household have? | ||
2. | Do you own your home? | ||
3. | What is your level of education? | ||
4. | How old are you? | ||
5. | How many people live in your household at least 9 months out of the year? | ||
Connection and Supply | |||
6. | Do you get your water from the following sources? Please include all that apply. | ||
(a.) | Municipal water supply | ||
(b.) | Personal well | ||
(c.) | Local public well | ||
(d.) | Not sure | ||
(e.) | Other (please explain) | ||
7. | Approximately how many hours per day do you get water supply? | ||
End Uses, Water-Conservation Behaviors, and Technology | |||
8. | (A.) | What kind of water-filtration system do you have? | |
(a.) | Reverse Osmosis (RO) | ||
(b.) | Ultraviolet (UV) | ||
(c.) | RO-UV | ||
(d.) | Granular Filtration | ||
(e.) | Other (please explain) | ||
(f.) | None | ||
(g.) | Don’t know | ||
(B.) | If you have an RO or RO–UV filter, how do you dispose of the wastewater? | ||
(a.) | Pour it down the drain | ||
(b.) | Pour it outside | ||
(c.) | Other (please explain) | ||
(d.) | Don’t know | ||
9. | (A.) | How many desert coolers do you have in your home? | |
(B.) | What are their capacities, in liters? | ||
(C.) | How often do you refill them in the hot season per day? | ||
(D.) | Have you purchased a new cooler in the past five years? | ||
(E.) | If yes, how many have you purchased? | ||
(F.) | If yes, was it an additional cooler or a replacement for a broken one? | ||
10. | (A.) | In the past five years, have you installed a rainwater-harvesting system? | |
(B.) | If yes, what year did you install it? | ||
(C.) | If yes, why did you install it? | ||
11. | In the past two years, have you turned the faucet off when washing dishes or brushing your teeth to conserve water? | ||
12. | (A.) | How many of each toilet do you have? | |
(a.) | Dual-Flush | ||
(b.) | Single-Flush | ||
(c.) | Pour-Flush | ||
(d.) | Other/don’t know | ||
(B.) | If you have dual-flush toilets, what year did you install them? | ||
(C.) | If you have dual-flush toilets, why did you install them? | ||
13. | Do you take Western-style showers or do you use a bucket? | ||
14. | (A.) | Do you have a garden? | |
(B.) | If yes, how large is it, in square meters? | ||
(C.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the hot season? | ||
(D.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the cold season? | ||
(E.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the monsoon season? | ||
(F.) | If yes, what do you use to water it? Please include all that apply. | ||
(a.) | Sprinkler | ||
(b.) | Drip-irrigation system | ||
(c.) | Garden hose | ||
(d.) | Watering can | ||
(e.) | Other (please explain) | ||
(f.) | I do not water it | ||
15. | (A.) | Do you have a grass lawn? | |
(B.) | If yes, how large is it, in square meters? | ||
(C.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the hot season? | ||
(D.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the cold season? | ||
(E.) | If yes, how many times do you water it per week during the monsoon season? | ||
(F.) | If yes, what do you use to water it? Please include all that apply. | ||
(a.) | Sprinkler | ||
(b.) | Drip-irrigation system | ||
(c.) | Garden hose | ||
(d.) | Watering can | ||
(e.) | Other (please explain) | ||
(f.) | I do not water it | ||
16. | Roughly how much water do you use to clean your house per week? | ||
General Water Awareness | |||
17. | How often do you speak to your friends/family about water issues (supply, quality, monsoons, etc.)? | ||
(a.) | Never | ||
(b.) | Sometimes (1–3 times per month) | ||
(c.) | Frequently (>3 times a month) | ||
18. | (A.) | Please name any water-conservation initiatives in your area. If you can’t think of any, answer “none”. | |
(B.) | What organization is behind those initiatives? If you don’t know, answer “I don’t know”. | ||
19. | Have you noticed any water leaks in your neighborhood? | ||
Self-Efficacy | |||
20. | Here is a statement that people might make about an issue. “Droughts are unpreventable natural disasters.” How much do you agree or disagree with the statement? Please rate on a scale of 1–5, where 1 is “I strongly disagree”, 3 is “I neither agree nor disagree”, and 5 is “I strongly agree”. | ||
Social Norms | |||
21. | Here are some statements that people might make about an issue. How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Please rate them on a scale of 1–5, where 1 is “I strongly disagree”, 3 is “I neither agree nor disagree”, and 5 is “I strongly agree”. | ||
(A.) | Making sure we have enough water is everyone’s responsibility. | ||
(B.) | The government is obligated to provide full relief during droughts. | ||
Water-Conservation Scenario Amenability | |||
22. | Answer the following questions using a scale of 1–5, where 1 is “not at all likely”, 3 is “Neither Likely nor Unlikely”, and 5 is “very likely”. | ||
(A.) | Imagine that the Minister of the Public Health Engineering Department–Rajasthan announced that everyone should use 25% less water at their residences to reduce the impact of a drought. | ||
(I.) | How likely would you be to comply with that request? | ||
(II.) | What do you think about the majority of people in your community? How likely is it that they would comply with that request? | ||
(B.) | Imagine that the Minister of the Public Health Engineering Department–Rajasthan announced that everyone should use 50% less water at their residences to reduce the impact of a drought. | ||
(I.) | How likely would you be to comply with that request? | ||
(II.) | What do you think about the majority of people in your community? How likely is it that they would comply with that request? | ||
23. | If you have not installed dual-flush toilets, answer the following questions using a scale of 1–5, where 1 is “not at all likely”, 3 is “Neither Likely nor Unlikely”, and 5 is “very likely”. | ||
(A.) | How likely are you to install dual-flush toilets to conserve water in the next year? | ||
(B.) | Imagine the Minister of the Public Health Engineering Department–Rajasthan announced on the news that she was installing dual-flush toilets at her house to save water. How likely would you be to install dual-flush toilets as well? | ||
(C.) | Imagine a local religious official announced on the news that he was installing dual-flush toilets at his house to save water. How likely would you be to install dual-flush toilets as well? | ||
(D.) | Imagine a respected family member said that he was installing dual-flush toilets at his house to save water. How likely would you be to install dual-flush toilets as well? | ||
(E.) | Imagine a close friend said that he was installing dual-flush toilets at his house to save water. How likely would you be to install dual-flush toilets as well? |
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Gender | Percentage of Respondents | Percentage of Population, Jaipur City | |
Male | 63% | 52.6% | |
Female | 37% | 47.4% | |
Survey Age Group | Percentage of Respondents | Census Age Groups | Percentage of Population, Jaipur City |
18–25 | 25% | 18–24 | 14.5% |
26–35 | 26% | 25–34 | 17.5% |
36–45 | 18% | 35–44 | 13.6% |
46–55 | 14% | 45–54 | 9.3% |
56–65 | 10% | 55–64 | 5.5% |
66 and older | 7% | 65 and older | 4.2% |
Level of Education | Percentage of Respondents | Percentage of Population, Jaipur City | |
0–5 years | 14% | 52.6% | |
6–12 years | 11% | 23.9% | |
High School Graduate | 12% | 6.9% | |
Bachelor’s Degree | 40% | 16.4% * | |
Master’s Degree or Ph.D. | 23% | ||
Income Group 1 | Percentage of Respondents | ||
Low | 25% | ||
Middle | 53% | ||
High | 22% |
Roof Material | Points |
---|---|
Tin; plastic; grass; mud | −1 |
Concrete; slate; tile; stone | 1 |
Electricity | |
Electricity | 0 |
No electricity | −1 |
Windows | |
No windows; windows without glass | −1 |
Plain glass windows | 0 |
Decorated glass windows | 1 |
Number of Vehicles | |
None; only bicycles | −1 |
<3 mopeds/motorcycles, no car | 0 |
1 car/SUV; ≥3 mopeds/motorcycles | 1 |
≥2 cars/SUVs; 1 car & ≥3 mopeds/motorcycles | 2 |
House Ownership | |
Rents home | −1 |
Owns home | 0 |
Bedroom/Person Ratio | |
<0.25 | −1 |
0.25 ≤ x < 0.5 | 0 |
≤0.5 | 1 |
Income Group Designation | Sum of Scores |
High-Income Group (HIG) | 4–5 |
Middle-Income Group (MIG) | 2–3 |
Low-Income Group (LIG) | ≤1 |
Reported Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets, Based on Scenarios | Average | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|
Independently | 2.88 | 1.46 |
Close Friend Example | 3.12 | 1.43 |
Respected Family Member Example | 3.80 | 1.48 |
PHED Minister Example | 3.07 | 1.49 |
Local Religious Official Example | 2.32 | 1.45 |
Reported Likelihood of Reducing Water Consumption by a Certain Percentage | Average | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|
25% Reduction, Self | 3.96 | 1.27 |
25% Reduction, Others | 2.88 | 1.24 |
50% Reduction, Self | 2.64 | 1.37 |
50% Reduction, Others | 2.10 | 1.11 |
Independent Variables | Categorization of Independent Variables |
---|---|
Gender | Male |
Female | |
Age | 18–25 |
26–35 | |
36–45 | |
46–55 | |
56–65 | |
66 years and older | |
Education Level | 0–5 years |
6–12 years | |
High-School Graduate | |
Bachelor’s Degree | |
Master’s Degree or Ph.D. | |
Income Group | LIG |
MIG | |
HIG | |
Municipal Water Supply Source | Groundwater |
Surface Water | |
Daily Duration of Water Supply | 0–2 h |
2–4 h | |
4 -23 h | |
24 h | |
General Water Awareness: | Never |
Frequency of Conversation About Water | Sometimes |
with Friends and/or Family | Frequently |
Social Norms: | 1—Strongly Disagree |
Agreement with Statement | 2—Somewhat Disagree |
“The Government is Obligated to Provide Relief” | 3—Neither Agree nor Disagree |
“During a Drought” | 4—Somewhat Agree |
5—Strongly Agree | |
Self-Efficacy: | 1—Strongly Disagree |
Agreement with Statement | 2—Somewhat Disagree |
“Droughts are Unpreventable” | 3—Neither Agree nor Disagree |
4—Somewhat Agree | |
5—Strongly Agree |
Dependent Variables | Categorization of Dependent Variables |
---|---|
Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets— | 1—Very Unlikely |
Independently | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets— | 1—Very Unlikely |
PHED Example | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets— | 1—Very Unlikely |
Respected Family Member Example | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets— | 1—Very Unlikely |
Close Friend Example | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Installing DF Toilets— | 1—Very Unlikely |
Religious Official Example | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Reducing Consumption | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
by 25% | 3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely | |
Likelihood of Reducing Consumption | 1—Very Unlikely |
by 50% | 2—Somewhat Unlikely |
3—Neither Likely nor Unlikely | |
4—Somewhat Likely | |
5—Very Likely |
Independent Variable | Pillai’s Trace | F Value | Pr > F |
---|---|---|---|
Water-Supply Duration | 0.3901 | 1.73 | 0.0272 |
Income Group | 0.2150 | 1.38 | 0.1702 |
Self-Efficacy | 0.4312 | 1.42 | 0.0830 |
Number of observations used: 95 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standard Error | Wald χ2 | Pr > χ2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age Group | ||||
18–25 | 0.872 | 0.866 | 1.01 | 0.314 |
26–35 | 1.608 | 0.859 | 3.50 | 0.061 |
36–45 | 1.051 | 0.896 | 1.38 | 0.241 |
46–55 | 1.349 | 0.880 | 2.35 | 0.125 |
56–65 | 0.567 | 1.028 | 0.30 | 0.581 |
66+ | 0 | 0.000 | ||
Income Group | ||||
High Income | 0.639 | 0.388 | 2.71 | 0.100 |
Middle Income | 0 | 0.000 | ||
Low Income | −0.538 | 0.571 | 0.89 | 0.346 |
Social Norm: Government is Obligated to Provide Relief During Drought | ||||
Strongly Disagree | 0.118 | 0.554 | 0.05 | 0.831 |
Somewhat Disagree | 0.816 | 0.629 | 1.68 | 0.194 |
Neither Agree nor Disagree | 1.196 | 0.468 | 6.54 | 0.011 |
Somewhat Agree | 0.760 | 0.465 | 2.67 | 0.102 |
Strongly Agree | 0 | 0.000 | ||
Intercept | −2.615 | 0.863 | 9.19 | 0.0024 |
Number of observations used: 192 |
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Ramsey, E.; Berglund, E.Z.; Goyal, R. The Impact of Demographic Factors, Beliefs, and Social Influences on Residential Water Consumption and Implications for Non-Price Policies in Urban India. Water 2017, 9, 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110844
Ramsey E, Berglund EZ, Goyal R. The Impact of Demographic Factors, Beliefs, and Social Influences on Residential Water Consumption and Implications for Non-Price Policies in Urban India. Water. 2017; 9(11):844. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110844
Chicago/Turabian StyleRamsey, Elizabeth, Emily Zechman Berglund, and Rohit Goyal. 2017. "The Impact of Demographic Factors, Beliefs, and Social Influences on Residential Water Consumption and Implications for Non-Price Policies in Urban India" Water 9, no. 11: 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110844