Controlling Stormwater Quality with Filter Soil—Event and Dry Weather Testing
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (a)
- To monitor the treatment performance of Danish road runoff infiltration systems with filter soil during storm events, and to look for differences between filter soil based on modified local soil with/without limestone and unpolluted soil from a landfill, and
- (b)
- To test the treatment performance of one of the systems under more extreme conditions using a synthetic road runoff solution with high yet realistic concentrations of a range of relevant pollutants.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Locations
2.2. Soil Samples
2.3. Soil Analyses
2.4. Water Sampling Procedure
2.5. Water Analyses
2.6. Application of Synthetic Influent to One Curb Extension
3. Results
3.1. Filter Soil Characteristics
3.2. Characterization of Rain Events
3.3. Influent and Percolate Concentrations
3.4. Test with Synthetic Influent
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Vogel, R.J.; Moore, T.L.; Coffman, R.R.; Rodie, S.N.; Hutchinson, S.L.; McDonough, K.R.; McLemore, A.J.; McMaine, J.T. Critical review of technical questions facing low impact development and green Infrastructure: A perspective from the great plains. Water Environ. Res. 2015, 87, 849–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grebel, J.E.; Mohanty, S.K.; Torkelson, A.A.; Boehm, A.B.; Higgins, C.P.; Maxwell, R.M.; Nelson, K.L.; Sedlak, D.L. Engineered infiltration systems for urban stormwater reclamation. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2013, 30, 437–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ingvertsen, S.T.; Jensen, M.B.; Magid, J. A minimum data set of water quality parameters to assess and compare treatment efficiency of stormwater facilities. J. Environ. Qual. 2011, 40, 1488–1502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Auckland Regional Council (ARC). Stormwater Management Devices: Design Guidelines Manual; Revision of Technical Publication: Auckland, New Zealand, 2003.
- German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste (DWA). Standard DWA—A 138E, Planning, Construction and Operation of Facilities for the Percolation of Precipitation Water; DWA: Hennef, Germany, 2005. (In English) [Google Scholar]
- Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA). The Minnesota Stormwater Manual; State of Minnesota Stormwater Manual: Saint Paul, MN, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). The SUDS Manual; CIRIA: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Davis, A.P.; Hunt, W.F.; Traver, R.G.; Clar, M. Bioretention technology: Overview of current practice and future needs. J. Environ. Eng. 2009, 135, 109–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ingvertsen, S.T.; Cederkvist, K.; Régent, Y.; Sommer, H.; Magid, J.; Jensen, M.B. Assessment of existing roadside swales with engineered filter soil: I. Characterization and lifetime expectancy. J. Environ. Qual. 2012, 41, 1960–1969. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark. Departmental Order Concerning Requirements for Discharge of Contaminants to Streams, Lakes or the Sea; Bek. Nr. 1725 af 22/12/2015; Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2015. (In Danish)
- Danish Environmental Protection Agency. List of Quality Criteria in Relation to Polluted Soil and Quality Criteria for Drinking Water (Liste over Kvalitetskriterier i Relation til Forurenet Jord og Kvalitetskriterier for Drikkevand; Danish Environmental Protection Agency: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2015.
- Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark. Departmental Order Concerning Establishment of Environmental Goals for Streams, Lakes, Transition Waters, Coastal Waters and Groundwater; Bek. Nr. 1070 af 09/09/2015; Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2015. (In Danish)
- Gerwin, L.; (Administration for Technology and Environment, Municipality of Copenhagen, Denmark). Personal communication, 2016.
- Hatt, B.E.; Fletcher, T.D.; Deletic, A. Hydraulic and pollutant removal performance of fine media stormwater fi ltration systems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 2535–2541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thompson, A.M.; Paul, A.C.; Balster, N.J. Physical and hydraulic properties of engineered soil media for bioretention basins. Trans. ASABE 2008, 51, 499–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ingvertsen, S.T.; Cederkvist, K.; Jensen, M.B.; Magid, J. Assessment of existing roadside swales with engineered filter soil: II. Treatment efficiency and in situ mobilization in soil columns. J. Environ. Qual. 2012, 41, 1970–1981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lim, H.S.; Lim, W.; Hu, J.Y.; Ziegler, A.; Ong, S.L. Comparison of filter media materials for heavy metal removal from urban stormwater runoff using biofiltration systems. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 147, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davis, A.P. Field performance of bioretention: Water quality. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2007, 24, 1048–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diblasi, C.J.; Li, H.; Davis, A.P.; Ghosh, U. Removal and fate of polycyclic hydrocarbon pollutants in an urban stormwater bioretention facility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 494–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Passeport, E.; Hunt, W.F.; Line, D.E.; Smith, R.A.; Brown, R.A. Field study of the ability of two grassed bioretention cells to reduce storm-water runoff pollution: Technical note. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 2009, 135, 505–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- David, N.; Leatherbarrow, J.E.; Yee, D.; McKee, L.J. Removal efficiencies of a bioretention system for trace metals, PCBs, PAHs, and dioxins in a semiarid environment. J. Environ. Eng. 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lucke, T.; Nichols, P.W.B. The pollution removal and stormwater reduction performance of street-side bioretention basins after ten years in operation. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 536, 784–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, J.; Sample, D.J.; Bell, C.; Guan, Y. Review and research needs of bioretention used for the treatment of urban stormwater. Water 2014, 6, 1069–1099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gee, G.W.; Bauder, J.W. Particle-size analysis. In Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods, 2nd ed.; Klute, A., Ed.; ASA and SSSA: Madison, WI, USA, 1986; pp. 383–411. [Google Scholar]
- Olsen, S.R.; Cole, C.V.; Watanabe, F.S.; Dean, L.A. Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicarbonate; Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1954; pp. 1–19.
- Bouwer, H. Intake rate: Cylinder infiltrometer. In Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods, 2nd ed.; Klute, A., Ed.; ASA and SSSA: Madison, WI, USA, 1986; pp. 825–844. [Google Scholar]
- Jørgensen, H.K.; Rosenorn, S.; Madsen, H.; Mikkelsen, P.S. Quality control of rain data used for urban runoff systems. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 37, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zgheib, S.; Moilleron, R.; Saad, M.; Chebbo, G. Partition of pollution between dissolved and particulate phases: What about emerging substances in urban stormwater catchments? Water Res. 2011, 45, 913–925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cederkvist, K.; Jensen, M.B.; Bjerager, P.E.R.; Holm, P.E. Method for assessment of stormwater treatment facilities—Synthetic road runoff application including micro-pollutants and tracer. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2016, in press. [Google Scholar]
- Kayhanian, M.; Singh, A.; Suverkropp, C.; Borroum, S. Impact of annual average daily traffic on highway runoff pollutant concentrations. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE 2003, 129, 975–990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Göbel, P.; Dierkes, C.; Coldewey, W.C. Stormwater runoff concentration matrix for urban areas. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2007, 91, 26–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Helmreich, B.; Hilliges, R.; Schriewer, A.; Horn, H. Runoff pollutants of a highly trafficked urban road—Correlation analysis and seasonal influences. Chemosphere 2010, 80, 991–997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lloyd, S.D.; Fletcher, T.D.; Wong, T.H.F.; Wooton, R.M. Assessment of pollutant removal in a newly constructed bioretention system. In Proceedings of the 2nd South Pacific Stormwater Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, 27–29 June 2001; pp. 20–30.
- Kayhanian, M.; Fruchtman, B.D.; Gulliver, J.S.; Montanaro, C.; Ranieri, E.; Wuertz, S. Review of highway runoff characteristics: Comparative analysis and universal implications. Water Res. 2012, 46, 6609–6624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maestre, A.; Pitt, R. The National Stormwater Quality Database, Version 1.1. A Compilation and Analysis of NPDES Stormwater Monitoring Information; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
- Huber, M.; Welker, A.; Helmreich, B. Critical review of heavymetal pollution of traffic area runoff: Occurrence, influencing factors, and partitioning. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 541, 895–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomson, N.R.; McBean, E.A.; Snodgrass, W.; Mostrenko, I. Sample size needs for characterizing pollutant concentrations in highway runoff. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE 1997, 123, 1061–1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drapper, D.; Tomlinson, R.; Williams, P. Pollutant concentrations in road runoff: Southeast Queensland case study. J. Environ. Eng. 2000, 126, 313–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, H.; Davis, A. Water quality improvement through reductions of pollutant loads using bioretention. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE 2009, 135, 567–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mullane, J.M.; Flury, M.; Iqbal, H.; Freeze, P.M.; Hinman, C.; Cogger, C.G.; Shi, Z. Intermittent rainstorms cause pulses of nitrogen, phosphorus, and copper in leachate from compost in bioretention systems. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 537, 294–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Correll, D.L. The role of phosphorus in the Eutrophication of receiving water: A review. J. Environ. Qual. 1998, 27, 261–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cederkvist, K. Chromium in Stormwater Runoff—Determination and Control Options. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Butera, S.; Christensen, T.H.; Astrup, T.F. Composition and leaching of construction and demolition waste: Inorganic elements and organic compounds. J. Hazard. Mater. 2014, 276, 302–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jardine, P.M.; Fendorf, S.E.; Mayes, M.A.; Larsen, I.L.; Brooks, S.C.; Bailey, W.B. Fate and transport of hexavalent chromium in undisturbed heterogeneous soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33, 2939–2944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cederkvist, K.; Ingvertsen, S.T.; Jensen, M.B.; Holm, P.E. Behaviour of chromium(VI) in stormwater soil infiltration systems. Appl. Geochem. 2013, 35, 44–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birch, H.; Mikkelsen, P.S.; Jensen, J.K.; Lutzhöft, H.C.H. Micropollutants in stormwater runoff and combined sewer overflow in the Copenhagen area, Denmark. Water. Sci. Technol. 2011, 64, 485–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gasperi, J.; Sebastian, C.; Ruban, V.; Delamain, M.; Percot, S.; Wiest, L.; Mirande, C.; Caupos, E.; Demare, D.; Kessoo, M.D.; et al. Micropollutants in urban stormwater: Occurrence, concentrations, and atmospheric contributions for a wide range of contaminants in three French catchments. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2014, 21, 5267–5281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Borggaard, O.K.; Gimsing, A.L. Fate of glyphosate in soil and the possibility of leaching to ground and surface waters: A review. Pest Manag. Sci. 2008, 64, 441–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Paszko, T.; Muszynski, P.; Materska, M.; Bojanowska, M.; Kostecka, M.; Jackowska, I. Adsorption and degradation of phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides in soils: A review. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016, 35, 271–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Groundwater Quality Criteria 1 [μg/L] | Short-Term Conc. Criteria for Surface Freshwater Bodies 2 (in Parenthesis the Long-Term Conc. Criteria) [μg/L] | |
---|---|---|
Reference | [11] | [12] |
Cadmium (Cd) 3 | 0.5 | <0.45–1.5 (<0.08–0.25) |
Chromium (Cr) Cr(III) + Cr(VI) Cr(VI) | 25 1 | 124 (17) 4.9 (3.4) |
Copper (Cu) | 100 | 2 (1) |
Nickel (Ni) | 10 | 34 (4) |
Lead (Pb) | 1 | 2.8 (1.2) |
Zinc (Zn) | 100 | 8.4 (7.8) |
Acenaphthene | No criterion | 3.8 (3.8) |
Benzo(a)pyrene | 0.01 | 0.027 (0.00017) |
Fluoranthene | 0.1 | 0.12 (0.0063) |
Naphthalene | 1 | 130 (2) |
Phenanthrene | No criterion | 4.1 (1.3) |
Pyrene | No criterion | 0.023 (0.0046) |
Sum of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | 0.1 4 | No criterion |
Single pesticide | 0.1 | No criterion |
Sum of pesticides | 0.5 | No criterion |
Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) | No criterion | 160 (54) |
Swale-Trenches—Odense Photo of One of the Swale-Trenches | Curb Extensions—Copenhagen Photo of One of the Curb Extensions | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
East (+limestone) | West | Moellebakken | Lindevang | |
Year of construction | Spring 2011 | Fall 2012 | ||
Catchment typology UTM | Parking lot for 200 cars 55°22′4.22′′ N 10°25′26.74′′ E | Residential road <5000 cars per day 55°42′16.83′′ N 12°27′44.72′′ E | Residential road <5000 cars per day 55°37′8.84′′ N 12°24′59.75′′ E | |
Design | 0.3 m deep filter soil layer on top of a thin gravel layer and 0.5 m of infiltration trench made from stormwater boxes | Curb extension with a 0.4 m deep filter soil layer on top of 1.6 m soakaway made from stormwater boxes | ||
Infiltration area | 1000 m2 | 1180 m2 | 20 m2 | 16 m2 |
Catchment area: infiltration area | 5:1 | 5:1 | 33:1 | 21:1 |
Filter soil composition | Local topsoil mixed 1:1 with sand in grain size 0.02–2 mm and 3 kg of bryozo calcite 1 per m3 of soil-sand mixture | Local topsoil mixed 1:1 with sand in grain size 0.02–2 mm | Made from RGS90 growth-topsoil (mixture 4) 2 from a landfill storage | |
No. of influent samples | 12 | 10 | ||
Influent sampling method | Runoff samples collected via line drainage placed along the edge of parking lot connected to a sampling well | Runoff samples were collected from nearby road with similar traffic load (55°41′49.71′′ N 12°27′50.74′′ E) by means of a fraction collector placed in a road well equipped with 24 PE-containers of 0.5 L (ISCO 3700) | ||
No. of percolate samples | 15 | 9 | 10 | 8 |
Percolate sampling method | From sampling wells (Quadro Control Fränkische) connected with the stormwater boxes via a longitudinal perforated pipe mounted along the top of the stormwater boxes, just below the filter soil, capturing fractions of the percolating water | From bottom of the stormwater boxes by vacuum pumping in a tube (Teflon™) lowered into the stormwater boxes through a vertical pipe bypassing the filter soil. As percolate ponded in the bottom of the trench for some time before ex-filtrating into surrounding soil it was considered mixed and representative of the filter soil percolate | ||
Monitoring period | June 2014–October 2014 | July 2013–December 2014 | October 2013–December 2014 |
Odense | Moellebakken | Lindevang | Method | Detection Limit | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Monitoring program | B | E | S | B | E | |||
pH | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
Electric conductivity | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN 27888 | 0.5 mS/m |
Suspended solids | X | X | X | X | X | EN 872 | 0.5 mg/L | |
TOC/DOC | X | X | X | X | EN 1484 | 1 mg/L | ||
P-total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | SM 4500-P (F) | 0.005 mg/L |
N-total | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 11905 auto mod Skalar | 0.05 μg/L | ||
NH3+NH4-N | X | X | X | SM 4500-NH3 (H) | 0.005 mg/L | |||
NO3-N | X | X | X | SM 4500-NO3 (H) | 0.1 mg/L | |||
Cl | X | X | X | X | SM 4500-Cl (E) | 1 mg/L | ||
Al—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 30 μg/L | |
Cd—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 0.05 μg/L |
Cr—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 0.5 μg/L |
Cu—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 1.0 μg/L |
Ni—total and dissolved1 | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 1.0 μg/L | |
Pb—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 0.5 μg/L |
Zn—total and dissolved | X | X | X | X | X | X | EN ISO 17294m: 2005 ICP/MS | 5.0 μg/L |
Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) | X | X | ISO 9377-2 mod.GC/FID | C6H6-C10: 2 μg/L C10-C25: 8 μg/L C25-C35: 10 μg/L | ||||
PAHs | X | X | X | X | GC/MS | 0.01 μg/L | ||
Pesticides: 2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy) acetic acid (MCPA), Glyphosate | X | GC/MS, LC/MS/MS | 0.01 μg/L | |||||
Anionic detergents | X | DS 237 | 0.15 mg/L |
pH | Texture (%) | Hydraulic Conductivity (m/s) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic C | Clay | Silt | Fine Sand | Sand | |||
DWA [5] | 6–8 | 1–3 | Clay + Silt < 10 | 10−5–10−3 | |||
Odense Swale-Trenches | East 7.9 West 7.5 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 1.5 | 25.2 | 68.7 | 2 × 10−5 (1.6 × 10−5) |
Copenhagen Curb Extensions | 7.8 (0.04) | 2.0 (0.3) | 4.9 (1.1) | 3.9 (1.1) | 30.4 (1.8) | 61.1 (2.2) | 2.7 × 10−5 (3.0 × 10−6) |
Parameter | Odense Swale-Trenches | Copenhagen Curb Extensions | Soil Quality Criteria 1 |
---|---|---|---|
[mg/kg DM] | |||
Cd | 0.12 (0.02) | 0.20 (0.03) | 0.5 |
Cr | 5.0 (0.6) | 4.1 (0.4) | 500 (20) |
Cu | 2.0 (0.4) | 9.5 (0.4) | 500 |
Ni | 3.8 (0.4) | 4.4 (0.4) | 30 |
Pb | 4.4 (0.7) | 11 (0) | 40 |
Zn | 18 (2) | 45 (3) | 500 |
Sum of hydrocarbons | b.d. | 25 (2.6) | 100 |
Fluoranthene | b.d. | 0.09 (0.03) | n.i. |
Benzo(b+j+k)fluoranthene | b.d. | 0.14 (0.04) | n.i. |
Benzo(a)pyrene | b.d. | 0.05 (0.02) | 0.3 |
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene | b.d. | 0.05 (0.02) | n.i. |
Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene | b.d. | 0.01 (0.004) | 0.3 |
Sum of 7 PAHs 2 | b.d. | 0.34 (0.1) | 4 |
Odense | |||||||||||||||||||||
Date (all 2014) | 28/6 | 14/7 | 10/8 | 14/8 | 18/8 | 31/8 | 15/9 | 22/9 | 30/9 | 13/10 | 17/10 | 20/10 | |||||||||
Rain depth antecedent 24 h [mm] | 1.2 | 21.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 1.4 | 16.4 | 2.6 | 11.4 | 15.0 | 7.8 | 2.6 | 27.6 | |||||||||
Antecedent dry days [d] | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |||||||||
Antecedent 7 days rain depth [mm] | 28.8 | 1.6 | 11.4 | 15.8 | 32.8 | 12.8 | 16.6 | 2.3 | 1.6 | 15.4 | 15.4 | 40.2 | |||||||||
Copenhagen | |||||||||||||||||||||
Date (all 2014) | 7/5 | 9/5 | 8/8 | 29/8 | 30/9 | 7/10 | 13/10 | 24/11 | 5/12 | 12/12 | |||||||||||
Rain depth inlet sample [mm] | 15.1 | 11.9 | 19.8 | 8.8 | 2.5 | 5.0 | 3.3 | 6.2 | 4.0 | 11.9 | |||||||||||
Antecedent dry weather [d] | 13 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 11 | 2 | |||||||||||
Antecedent 7 days rain depth [mm] | 0 | 17.9 | 30.4 | 5.2 | 7.0 | 9.2 | 11.2 | 8.2 | 0 | 14.0 |
Swale-Trench Systems | Curb Extensions | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odense Influent n = 12 | Odense East Percolate n = 15 | Odense West Percolate n = 9 | Copenhagen Influent n = 10 or n = 5 1 | Moellebakken Percolate n = 10 or n = 5 1 | Lindevang Percolate n = 8 or n = 4 1 | |
pH | 7.0 (0.3) | 8.2 (0.2) | 8.1 (0.2) | 7.5 (0.3) | 8.5 (0.6) | 8.0 (0.2) |
EC [mS/m] | 4.1 (1.6) | 32.0 (9.4) | 28.4 (14.4) | 11.4 (3.8) | 24.5 (8.0) | 20.3 (3.7) |
Susp. solids [mg/L] | 16 (11) | 8.6 (6.2) | 8.9 (5.5) | 26.7 (23.5) | 5.5 (4.2) | n.a. |
OC 2 | 4.3 (2.7) | 8.5 (3.4) | 8.2 (3.6) | 12.3 (14.5) | 5.3 (1.1) | 6.2 (2.1) |
N tot. [mg/L] | 1.2 (0.7) | 1.2 (0.6) | 1.2 (0.8) | 1.6 (0.6) | 1.3 (0.4) | 1.1 (0.3) |
NH3+NH4-N diss. [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.3 (0.2) | 1.5 (3.3) | 0.02 (0.02) |
NO3-N diss.[mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.7 (0.4) | 0.9 (0.4) | 0.8 (0.3) |
P tot. [mg/L] | 0.1 (0.03) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) |
P diss. [mg/L] | 0.03 (0.02) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.03 (0.02) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) |
Cl diss. [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 7.9 (9.1) | 9.6 (5.7) | 3.9 (1.6) |
Al tot. [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 793 (643) | 348 (166) | 271 (146) |
Al diss. [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 69.2 (113.0) | 113 (68.2) | 54 (37) |
Pb tot. [μg/L] | 1.8 (1.7) | 1.8 (1.5) | 1.2 (0.5) | 2.4 (1.8) | 0.8 (0.4) | 0.8 (0.3) |
Pb diss. [μg/L] | 0.6 (0.5) | 0.6 (0.1) | 0.6 (0.2) | 0.5 | 0.5 (0.03) | 0.5 |
Cd tot. [μg/L] | 0.1 (0.02) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.1 (0.01) | 0.1 (0.01) | 0.1 (0.1) |
Cr tot. [μg/L] 3 | 5.0 (13. 6) | 4.8 (3.1) | 4.9 (5.4) | 2.1 (1.5) | 8.1 (10.3) | 5.3 (10.4) |
Cr diss. [μg/L] | 2.5 (6.5) | 1.8 (1.7) | 1.3 (0.7) | 0.7 (0.3) | 7.2 (10.0) | 4.9 (10.6) |
Cu tot. [μg/L] | 7.2 (4.6) | 7.1 (3.6) | 6.5 (3.1) | 11.7 (5.1) | 9.6 (6.9) | 6.0 (2.5) |
Cu diss. [μg/L] | 5.1 (5.7) | 5.7 (3.5) | 6.4 (4.1) | 6.2 (3.3) | 6.6 (5.5) | 4.3 (3.0) |
Ni tot. [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 7.2 (14.4) | 2.2 (1.7) | 1.4 (0.7) |
Ni diss. [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 1.4 (0.4) | 2.0 (1.9) | 1.2 (0.4) |
Zn tot. [μg/L] | 25.9 (15.3) | 11.5 (9.9) | 11.1 (7.7) | 27.9 (12.1) | 5.7 (1.0) | 8.1 (5.4) |
Zn diss. [μg/L] | 18.4 (20.7) | 6.1 (2.1) | 5.8 (2.0) | 12.1 (10.3) | 5.0 | 5.8 (2.1) |
Acenaphthene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.01) |
Naphthalene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.005) |
Phenanthrene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Fluoranthene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.004) | 0.01 |
Pyrene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.005) | 0.01 |
Benzo (b+j+k)fluoranthene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.05 (0.06) | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.01 |
Benzo(a)pyrene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.01 (0.003) | 0.01 |
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [μg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.01 (0.004) | 0.01 |
Parameter | First Addition | Second Addition | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Influent | Expected Effluent Concentration | Observed Effluent Concentration | Influent | Expected Effluent Concentration | Observed Effluent Concentration | |
pH | 7.8 | 8.2 | 8 | 8.3 | ||
Suspended solids | 1.1 | 3.2 | 0.7 | 3.7 | ||
Br [mg/L] | 3000 | 2100 | 3300 | 1600 | ||
P [μg/L] | 390 350 | 273 | 250 200 | 380 390 1 | 184 | 300 300 |
Cd [μg/L] | 3.9 3.8 | 2.7 | 0.06 <0.05 | 4.6 4.5 | 2.2 | <0.05 <0.05 |
Cr(VI) [μg/L] | 36 33 | 25.2 | 26 19 | 23 19 | 11.2 | 9.8 9.5 |
Cu [μg/L] | 51 41 | 35.7 | 8 <1 | 54 45 | 26.2 | 8.1 2.7 |
Ni [μg/L] | No data 2 | - | No data | 20 17 | 9.7 | 1.2 1.1 |
Pb [μg/L] | 18 12 | 12.6 | 1.6 <0.5 | 19 15 | 9.2 | <0.5 <0.5 |
Zn [μg/L] | No data 1 | - | No data | 190 180 | 92.1 | 6.4 <5 |
Acenaphthene [μg/L] | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.05 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.03 |
Naphthalene [μg/L] | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.02 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.02 |
Phenanthrene [μg/L] | 0.8 | 0.5 | <0.01 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.01 |
Glyphosate [μg/L] | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.09 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.08 |
MCPA [μg/L] | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 0.1 |
Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates [μg/L] | No data 1 | - | No data | 130 | 63.0 | <0.03 |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Cederkvist, K.; Jensen, M.B.; Ingvertsen, S.T.; Holm, P.E. Controlling Stormwater Quality with Filter Soil—Event and Dry Weather Testing. Water 2016, 8, 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080349
Cederkvist K, Jensen MB, Ingvertsen ST, Holm PE. Controlling Stormwater Quality with Filter Soil—Event and Dry Weather Testing. Water. 2016; 8(8):349. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080349
Chicago/Turabian StyleCederkvist, Karin, Marina Bergen Jensen, Simon Toft Ingvertsen, and Peter E. Holm. 2016. "Controlling Stormwater Quality with Filter Soil—Event and Dry Weather Testing" Water 8, no. 8: 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080349