Urbanization Effects on Watershed Hydrology and In-Stream Processes in the Southern United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- What are the predominant physical, chemical, and ecological effects that urbanization has on southern streams and their watersheds?
- What are the challenges and opportunities that exist for improving the understanding of the effects of urbanization on southern streams and their watersheds?
2. Study Area
3. Urbanization and Watershed Hydrology
3.1. Urbanization Effects on Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
Study Area/Physiographic Setting | TIA or urban land use | Runoff | Baseflow | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Montgomery Co., MD/Piedmont | ~65% urban | 3–4 times greater 2 yr peakflows than in forested catchment. | Decreased low flows/baseflow | [27] |
Roanoke River Basin, VA/ Appalachians | 6% TIA | Low density development had greatest hydrological impact due to highest per capita TIA. 9% increase in total runoff, 22% increase in 10 yr peak, 73–95% increase in 1–5 yr peaks. | 12% watershed decline in groundwater recharge. | [29] |
Watts Branch, MD/ Piedmont | 32% TIA | 2 yr peakflows doubled, but within the watershed could range from approximately 1.25–3 times larger due to urbanization, greatest increases at confluences. | N/A | [30] |
Baltimore, MD/ Piedmont | 30% TIA | Trees reduced runoff for small rain events and could intercept up to 41%. Runoff decreased by 3.4% when tree cover was increased from 5–40%. Trees could reduce peakflows by 12%. | Doubling TIA reduced baseflow by 17%. | [31] |
Baltimore, MD/Piedmont | 18% TIA | Simulated runoff ratio (precipitation/streamflow) increased from 0.09 to 0.75 at 80% TIA. Runoff ratio increased rapidly after 20–25% TIA and when soil moisture increased. | Simulated baseflow decline of up to 20%. | [32] |
Baltimore, MD/ Piedmont | Over 50% TIA | N/A | Baseflow decreased as TIA increased. | [33] |
GA & MD/Piedmont | >30% TIA | Significant increase in events exceeding 3 times the median flow for urban streams. Daily % change in streamflow increased from 15% to 19–21% with urbanization. | N/A | [34] |
Accotink Ck, VA/ Piedmomt & Coastal Plain | 33% TIA | With a historical increase of TIA from 3% to 33% the daily streamflow increased by 48% for periods of normal rain (>6 mm) and by 75% for periods with extreme rain (>35 mm). | Decrease in low flows and increase in flow variability. | [35] |
NC; AL, & GA, /Piedmont & Appalachians | Up to 98% urban | More frequent rising events, where total rise is >9X the median total rise, associated with urban intensity. Relative daily change in stage moderately correlated with urban intensity. | Lack of correlation with low flow and urban intensity. | [36] |
NC & AL/ Piedmont and Appalachians | Up to 79% urban | Greater flashiness of flow at urban sites (frequency of hourly periods when stage rises/falls by 0.3–0.9 ft). Less flashiness when developed land patches are spread out vs. agglomerated. | Shorter duration of low stage flows for urban streams. | [37] |
Greenville, NC/ Coastal Plain | Up to 38% TIA | Urban storm hydrographs had higher peakflows, lower base flows, and decreased lag times compared with rural. Urban channel incision resulted in deeper water tables. | Baseflow declined from 63% of rural discharge to 35% of urban discharge. | [38] |
Atlanta GA/ Piedmont | >35% TIA | Urbanization increased peakflows. Increased total discharge in wet years, decreased in dry years. | Decreased low flows. | [39] |
Chattahoochee River, GA/ Piedmont | Up to 40% TIA | # of times discharge exceeded 9-times the median flow positively correlated with TIA. # of events discharge increased by 100% in 1 h were positively correlated with TIA. | N/A | [40] |
Atlanta, GA/ Piedmont and Blue Ridge | 55% urban | Peakflows 30–100% larger than for streams in surrounding less urban catchments. Urban storm recession 1–2 days faster than surrounding streams | Urban low flows 25–35% lower than rural. Urban groundwater levels decreased. | [41] |
West-central GA/ Piedmont | 38%–48% urban | Greater annual runoff (approximately 100% larger for urban streams). | N/A | [42] |
Georgetown Co., SC/ Coastal Plain | 23% TIA | Runoff 6X larger for an urban vs. rural watershed and runoff ratio 15 % higher for urban. | N/A | [43] |
Indian River Lagoon, FL/ Coastal Plain | Up to 35% urban | Event runoff increased up to 55%. Annual runoff increased 49% and 113% for 2 urbanized watersheds. | N/A | [44] |
Miami, FL/ Coastal Plain | 44% DCIA | Over a 52 yr period 72% of total runoff was generated from the directly connected impervious area (44% of site). Non DCIA runoff only occurred for large storms. | N/A | [45] |
Econlockhatchee River, FL/ Coastal Plain | Up to 23% urban | River segment draining rural area received 76% groundwater inputs during a storm event, a downstream reach draining up to 23% urban area received only 47% groundwater inputs. | Baseflow inputs decreased along suburban reach. | [46] |
Barataria Basin, LA/Coastal Plain | 13% TIA | For low rainfall events (2.8 cm) and dry soils runoff increased by 4.2 times with 9% TIA. | N/A | [47] |
Houston Area, TX/Coastal Plain | ~8% TIA | For an 88% increase in concrete/asphalt cover, runoff ratio increased approximately 15%. | N/A | [48] |
TX and FL/ Coastal Plain | 17% increase in TIA | Measured precipitation, % TIA changes, and number of individual (>0.5 acres) and general wetland alteration permits were directly related with flood frequency. | N/A | [49] |
Whiteoak Bayou, TX/ Coastal Plain | ~30% TIA | As watershed urbanized annual runoff increased by 146% (77% attributed to urbanization, 39% attributed to increased rainfall) and peakflows increased by 159% (32% attributed to urbanization, 96% attributed to increased rainfall). | N/A | [50] |
3.2. Urbanization Effects on Stream Hydrology and Peakflows
3.3. Urbanization Effects on Baseflows and Groundwater Recharge
4. Urbanization and In-Stream Processes
4.1. Urbanization Effects on Channel Geomorphology and Sediment Transport
Study Area/ Physiographic Setting | TIA or urban land use | Effects of urbanization on channel morphology | Enlargement of cross-sectional area | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Baltimore, MD/Piedmont | Urban (extent N/A) | Increase in channel widths. | N/A | [67] |
Watts Branch, MD/ Piedmont | Up to 5 fold increase in houses | The net result of urbanization on channel dimensions after 20 years was a smaller channel, however the trend towards the end of the study was towards channel enlargement. Floodplain deposition ranged from 0.6–1 ft /13 yrs. | Early period of channel aggradation and decrease in channel cross-sectional area followed by a period of channel enlargement. | [68] |
PA, MD, DE/ Piedmont | Up to 66% TIA | Increase in channel width and cross-sectional area for urban streams, wider channels and greater cross-sectional areas along forested reaches indicating the importance of vegetation to channel form. | Urban reaches had greater width and cross-sectional area but not depth. | [69] |
NC/Piedmont | Up to 80% TIA | Increase in channel width, depth, and cross-sectional area. | 2.6 times larger than rural. | [70] |
NC/Coastal Plain | Up to 67% TIA | Increase in channel width, depth, and cross-sectional area. | 1.8–3.4 times larger than rural. | [71] |
NC/Coastal Plain | Up to 37% TIA | Increase in channel incision ratio and channel depth. | N/A | [38] |
Baltimore, MD/ Piedmont | Approximately 20% loss of stream length due to burial for the broad study area, in Baltimore City 70% of stream length in catchments <260 Ha were buried. | Decrease in bankfull cross-sectional area due to burial by infrastructure. | [72] | |
OK/Great Plains | Up to 12% TIA | Lack of urban response attributed to geological (cohesive channel sediments and shale and sandstone bedrock) and hydrogeological controls (groundwater). | N/A | [73] |
Knox Co. TN/Valley and Ridge | Urban (extent N/A) | Increase in bed particle size and anthropogenic particles. Propagation of channel changes is often prevented by infrastructure. | Majority of urban reaches undergoing channel enlargement. | [74] |
Fayetteville, AR/Ozark Mountains | Urban (extent N/A) | Decrease in channel depth. | N/A | [75] |
Baltimore, MD/Piedmont | Up to ~32% TIA | Channel reaches were classified as aggrading, early erosional, or late erosional stage. Aggradational sites (7/19) tended to show a decrease in cross-sectional area from 1987–2000, whereas erosional sites tended to show channel cross-sectional area increases of 15–24% over the same period. | Channel cross-sectional area enlargement, channel incision, and reduced channel width variation were common at erosional sites. | [76] |
Montgomery Co, MD/ Piedmont | Up to 20% TIA | Erosion from headwater channel enlargement due to urbanization provided approximately 40% of watershed sediment yield. | In catchments without retention basins urban channels were enlarged 2.1–2.5 times greater than rural channels. | [77] |
Baltimore Co., MD/ Piedmont | Up to 82% urban | Shear stress and stream power were greatest at high gradient meander bends, however in this urban catchment changes in hydrology have not caused significant migration of the channel since the 1930s. | N/A | [78] |
Rockville, MD/Piedmont | ~556 homes/mile2 | Increase in channel grain size, increase in floodplain deposition rates (during the first several decades of urbanization), increased channel width, increased w/d ratio, bed aggradation, and lateral migration of channels. | Increase in cross-sectional area due to widening (decrease in channel depth). | [79] |
Dallas, TX/Blackland and Grand Prairie | Up to 33% TIA | Channel erosion of up to 4 inches per year in gravel or rock bottom channels. | N/A | [80] |
4.2. Urbanization Effects on Water Quality
4.3. Urbanization Effects on Ecosystem Processes
4.4. Urbanization Effects on Biological Communities
5. Challenges and Opportunities for Future Work
Watershed Hydrology |
---|
Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
Stream Hydrology and Peakflows
Baseflow and Groundwater Recharge
|
In-stream Processes |
Channel Geomorphology
Water Quality
Ecosystem Processes
Biological Communities
|
Acknowledgements
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O’Driscoll, M.; Clinton, S.; Jefferson, A.; Manda, A.; McMillan, S. Urbanization Effects on Watershed Hydrology and In-Stream Processes in the Southern United States. Water 2010, 2, 605-648. https://doi.org/10.3390/w2030605
O’Driscoll M, Clinton S, Jefferson A, Manda A, McMillan S. Urbanization Effects on Watershed Hydrology and In-Stream Processes in the Southern United States. Water. 2010; 2(3):605-648. https://doi.org/10.3390/w2030605
Chicago/Turabian StyleO’Driscoll, Michael, Sandra Clinton, Anne Jefferson, Alex Manda, and Sara McMillan. 2010. "Urbanization Effects on Watershed Hydrology and In-Stream Processes in the Southern United States" Water 2, no. 3: 605-648. https://doi.org/10.3390/w2030605