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Article

Integrated Allocation of Water-Sediment Resources and Its Impacts on Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems in the Yellow River Basin

by
Lingang Hao
1,2,3,
Enhui Jiang
1,2,3,*,
Bo Qu
1,2,3,*,
Chang Liu
1,2,3,
Jia Jia
1,3,
Ying Liu
4 and
Jiaqi Li
5
1
Yellow River Institute of Hydraulic Research, Zhengzhou 450003, China
2
Key Laboratory of Lower Yellow River Channel and Estuary Regulation, Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of China, Zhengzhou 450003, China
3
Yellow River Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450003, China
4
College of Management and Economics, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
5
School of Water Conservancy and Transportation, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(19), 2821; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17192821
Submission received: 26 August 2025 / Revised: 16 September 2025 / Accepted: 24 September 2025 / Published: 26 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilient Rivers: Integrating Nature-Based Solutions with Hydraulic Engineering)
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Abstract

Both water and sediment resource allocation are critical for achieving sustainable development in sediment-laden river basins. However, current understanding lacks a holistic perspective and fails to capture the inseparability of water and sediment. The Yellow River Basin (YRB) is the world’s most sediment-laden river, characterized by pronounced ecological fragility and uneven socio-economic development. This study introduces integrated water-sediment allocation frameworks for the YRB based on the perspective of the water-sediment nexus, aiming to regulate their impacts on socio-economic and ecological systems. The frameworks were established for both artificial units (e.g., irrigation zones and reservoirs) and geological units (e.g., the Jiziwan region, lower channels, and estuarine deltas) within the YRB. The common feature of the joint allocation of water and sediment across the five units lies in shaping a coordinated water–sediment relationship, though their focuses differ, including in-stream water-sediment processes and combinations, the utilization of water and sediment resources, and the constraints imposed by socio-economic and ecological systems on water-sediment distribution. In irrigation zones, the primary challenge lies in engineering-based control of inflow magnitude and spatiotemporal distribution for both water and sediment. In reservoir systems, effective management requires dynamic regulation through density current flushing and coordinated operations to achieve water-sediment balance. In the Jiziwan region, reconciling socio-economic development with ecological integrity requires establishing science-based thresholds for water and sediment use while ensuring a balance between utilization and protection. Along the lower channel, sustainable management depends on delineating zones for human activities and ecological preservation within floodplains. For deltaic systems, key strategies involve adjusting upstream sediment and refining depositional processes.

1. Research Background

Water resources are fundamental natural assets and strategic economic resources that ensure high-quality socio-economic development and play a pivotal role in maintaining ecological stability [1,2]. Sediment transport and deposition through river systems are essential for riverbed stabilization, flood control engineering, construction material production, wetland formation, and land creation through sedimentation [3,4,5]. However, persistent water shortages continue to constrain agriculture, industry, vegetation restoration, and wetland conservation [6,7,8]. Problems such as sediment-induced reservoir siltation, riverbed aggradation, and water consumption for sediment regulation remain unresolved [9], while the water-sediment correlation has become increasingly imbalanced.
Both socioeconomic development and ecosystem health require water-sediment resources as fundamental support, yet exhibit trade-off relationships in their utilization patterns (Figure 1). Through anthropogenic allocation and regulation, synergistic development between socioeconomic systems and ecosystems can be achieved while maintaining rational utilization of water-sediment resources. Nevertheless, current scientific research and management practices still fall short of fully recognizing and utilizing the integrated characteristics of water and sediment. In particular, water and sediment are inseparable in sediment-laden rivers, and the interrelation between socio-economic systems and ecological processes under integrated water-sediment allocation should be considered. Resource utilization can only be accurately understood through this lens. The utilization and allocation of water and sediment resources play a crucial role in promoting the sustainable development of river basins [10].

2. Literature Review

Nowadays, water resource demand, utilization, management, and allocation have been extensively investigated from theoretical, methodological, and practical perspectives [11,12,13,14]. Studies on the relationship between socio-economy and ecology under different water resource allocation scenarios have yielded significant progress in theoretical concepts, computational methods, and practical applications [12,15]. A conceptual framework and implementation pathways for the utilization and allocation of sediment resources have also been substantially established [16,17,18,19]. The comprehensive utilization and optimized allocation of water and sediment resources have mainly focused on the following areas [20]: (1) soil and water conservation planning and ecological remediation projects [21], with an emphasis on sediment load reduction; (2) the integrated scheduling and allocation of water and sediment by reservoirs [22,23,24], focusing on the regulation and optimization of the spatiotemporal distribution of water and sediment; (3) the transport and allocation of water and sediment in irrigation zones [25], emphasizing the regulation of their spatiotemporal distribution through engineering and non-engineering measures to improve ecological, social, and economic outcomes; and (4) the optimized allocation of water and sediment resources across the entire basin [26,27], aimed at increasing water availability and reducing sediment to enhance resource utilization efficiency and optimize the spatiotemporal distribution. However, previous research has primarily focused on regulating the distribution of water and sediment, without fully addressing the role of sediment as a distinct resource. Moreover, the effects of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on socio-economy and ecology have primarily focused on the multi-objective scheduling of reservoir groups and water allocation with sediment considerations.
Given the diversity of water and sediment scenarios, underdeveloped socio-economic conditions, and ecological vulnerability [9,28,29], the YRB was selected as the study area. Table 1 presents the evolving understanding of water, sediment, and their management, as well as the corresponding achievements and shortcomings in YRB across different stages. The analysis underscores the dual nature of water and sediment in supporting socio-economic development while posing challenges to ecological protection. At present, multidimensional functional evaluations have been conducted on flood discharge, sediment transport, and the socio-economic and ecological services provided by the YRB [23]. Using the cascade reservoir group of the YRB as a case study, studies on the collaborative regulation of “water-sediment-power-ecology” have been conducted. These efforts involve multidimensional coordination and balanced regulation aimed at improving water resource utilization [30]. Through a framework of multi-scale nesting and multi-process coupling, a coordinated scheduling model has been developed. This model integrates water supply, sediment transport, power generation, and ecological protection to manage the cascade reservoir group in the YRB [31,32].
In general, previous research has neither moved beyond the traditional view of sediment as a hazard nor clarified the patterns of socio-economic development and ecological health under integrated water-sediment allocation strategies. Furthermore, the allocation of water and sediment resources and the interdependence between these resources in supporting socio-economic and ecological systems have not been sufficiently addressed. Even in the Yellow River, one of the world’s most sediment-laden rivers, this issue has received limited academic attention.
To address the aforementioned challenges, this study presents water-sediment allocation frameworks for five representative artificial and geological units of the YRB, trying to describe their impacts on socio-economic development and the ecological system. Specifically, key breakthrough points, allocation objectives, and approaches were identified, and the influence of integrated allocation strategies on socio-economic development and the ecological system was analyzed. These effects were interpreted based on the distinctive water-sediment interactions observed across various units. This study provides a scientific basis for partitioned and unit-specific regulation and allocation of water and sediment resources in the YRB, thereby supporting sustainable development both within individual units and across the basin as a whole.

3. Effects of Integrated Allocation of Water and Sediment Resources on the Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems of the YRB

3.1. Five Units in the YRB

Water resource demands for ecological and socio-economic functions in the YRB include domestic water, industrial water, agricultural water, off-channel ecological water, and in-channel ecological water. Sediment resource demands encompass flood control sediment, soil improvement sediment, ecological remediation sediment, construction materials, and estuarine land formation. From the perspective of human utilization and regulation, the YRB can be categorized into two artificial units: irrigation areas and reservoirs. In terms of formation-transport-deposition-utilization of water and sediment resources, the basin comprises three geological units: the Jiziwan region, the lower channel, and the estuarine delta. Figure 2 illustrates the spatial locations of these five units.
The five units are both independent and interrelated through water and sediment transport and utilization processes. Thus, these units serve as fundamental analytical entities for realizing basin-wide socio-economic and ecological sustainability through the integrated allocation of water and sediment resources. Table 2 presents the socio-economic and ecological characteristics of five distinct units within the YRB.

3.2. Overview of the Impact of Water-Sediment Allocation in the Five Units of the YRB on Socio-Economic Development and the Ecosystem

Table 3 demonstrates the potential impacts of water and sediment resource allocation on socio-economic development and the ecological system across five units in the YRB. Generally, (1) The irrigation area represents the unit with the highest demand for water resources within the YRB and is among the first regions studied for sediment resource utilization and integrated water-sediment allocation [36]. (2) The reservoir serves as the central hub for water and sediment regulation and allocation. Large reservoirs are key to controlling spatial sediment distribution and mitigating channel scouring and siltation in the Yellow River. Regulatory activities in reservoirs influence the water and sediment conditions not only within the reservoirs but also in irrigation areas, the Jiziwan region, lower channels, and the estuarine delta. (3) The Jiziwan region constitutes the primary sediment-producing zone and is one of the most water-deficient regions in the YRB. It is marked by acute water and sediment challenges and intense conflicts between socio-economic development and ecological preservation. (4) The lower channel is a major sediment deposition zone characterized by complex water-sediment dynamics across floodplains and channels and frequent conflicts between human activities and hydrological processes. As a transitional zone between the midstream and estuary, it constrains the operational strategies of upstream and midstream reservoirs and affects estuarine water and sediment conditions [39]. (5) The estuarine delta represents the final destination of water and sediment in the Yellow River. With China’s most intact warm-temperate wetland ecosystem, it stands out for its high level of socio-economic development and stringent ecological conservation demands. The volume and dynamics of sediment-laden water entering the sea are crucial factors influencing the estuarine delta’s morphology and development [44,45].

3.3. Development Approach of Framework for Integrated Allocation of Water and Sediment Resources

Based on the natural and human activity characteristics of the five units, and in consideration of regional development and conservation needs (Table 2 and Table 3), Table 4 introduces the major concerns related to water-sediment, socio-economy and ecology of the five units. Additionally, we have summarized the key points of conflict in water-sediment resource utilization between socio-economic and ecological systems across the five units of the YRB. The five frameworks introduced have been refined based on existing scientific knowledge, identified challenges, emerging circumstances in basin management, and synthesized potential solutions. Furthermore, it incorporates governance principles that are already reflected in certain current management policies. For example, the “Three-Floodplains and Three-Zones” pattern for the lower channel, though conceptually aligned to some extent with existing policies, lacks standardized regulatory documentation. The established five frameworks aim to resolve conflicts between socio-economic and ecosystem development based on the sustainable use of water and sediment resources, thereby facilitating synergistic progress between the two systems.

4. Integrated Allocation of Water and Sediment Resources in Artificial Units

4.1. Irrigation Area

The YRB plays a vital role in China’s agricultural production (Table 2). It includes the upstream Ningxia-Inner Mongolia irrigation area, midstream Fen-Wei irrigation area, and downstream Henan-Shandong Yellow River irrigation area, collectively covering approximately 86,000 ha of effectively irrigated farmland [56] (Figure 2). The water resource demand in these irrigation areas was mainly limited to irrigation water (Table 3 and Table 4). However, in recent years, portions of industrial and domestic water in these regions have also been supplied by the Yellow River irrigation area. The utilization of sediment resources in irrigation areas involves sediment-laden water diversion for field irrigation, dike reinforcement using sediment, siltation transformation, and paddy field conversion (Table 3 and Table 4). Notably, siltation transformation can reclaim saline-alkali land for agricultural use. In the irrigation areas, the sediment diversion follows a mass-balance approach, where the total sediment inflow equals the sediment retained within each allocation unit (e.g., grit chambers, main canals, branch/lateral/field canals, farmland, and drainage systems).
Figure 3 presents the techniques, objectives, and outcomes of integrated water and sediment resource allocation in the irrigation areas. The allocation techniques and objectives represent the process of integrated water and sediment resource allocation, while the outcomes reflect the socio-economic and ecological benefits of this integration. From 1960 to 2018, the annual sediment inflow in the middle and lower Yellow River irrigation areas averaged 99 million tons [57]. However, higher water diversion rates than sediment diversion resulted in increased incoming sediment coefficients downstream, exacerbating the imbalance between water and sediment. Thus, the core of integrated water and sediment allocation in irrigation areas lies in regulating the load and spatiotemporal dynamics of water and sediment entering the system via engineering and technical interventions. To improve soil quality, the proportion of sediment diverted to farmland should be optimized, while soil desertification should be avoided (Table 4). This necessitates the identification of an appropriate threshold for water and sediment loads. Moreover, the ecological functions of farmland ecosystems, such as groundwater recharge through irrigation, should be urgently integrated into ecological benefit assessments of water and sediment resource utilization in irrigation areas [36].

4.2. Reservoirs

The mainstem and tributary reservoirs regulate water and sediment processes by intercepting runoff and sediment, reducing the downstream sediment load, and altering the original water-sediment ratio in lower channels. Reservoir operations can have significant impacts on downstream biota through sediment disturbance to habitats and organisms, as well as ecological flow issues (Table 2 and Table 3). In the upstream Yellow River, the major reservoirs responsible for water and sediment regulation include Longyangxia and Liujiaxia, whereas the midstream and downstream systems are dominated by the Wanjiazhai, Sanmenxia, and Xiaolangdi reservoirs [24] (Figure 2). The system is now evolving towards a basin-scale regulatory approach that integrates flood discharge, sediment transport, ecological protection, and socio-economic development into a multi-objective, synergistic operational framework [26] (Table 1).
Reservoir-related water resource demands and constraints encompass flood control, disaster mitigation, floodwater utilization, water supply, power generation, sediment discharge, and ecological flow maintenance in lower channels (Table 3 and Table 4). Sediment utilization in reservoir areas can be achieved through sediment partitioning and grading strategies, such as those applied in the “reservoir tail-central reservoir area-dam front” model. A large volume of sediment is transported downstream with water. As the hydraulic energy gradually decreases along the inlet-to-dam direction, the deposited particles exhibit a spatial gradient from coarse to fine. The sand deposited at the reservoir tail can be characterized by the largest particle size and is suitable for use as a coarse aggregate [60]. In contrast, uniformly fine sand near the dam can be blended into construction materials to enhance their strength and reduce economic costs by improving the concrete aggregate grading. Despite these benefits, sedimentation remains a challenge. Excessive sediment accumulation reduces reservoir capacity, limits flood regulation functions, and diminishes storage potential. It can also damage the ecological integrity of reservoirs and their surrounding environment. Therefore, dredging is essential for optimizing sediment resource utilization and maintaining the socio-economic and ecological functions of reservoirs [60].
As shown in Figure 4, the integrated allocation of reservoir-based water and sediment resources relies on dynamically managing water-sediment correlations via the following two pathways: (1) coordinating the reservoir water-sediment interactions through density current flushing, sediment dredging, and sediment utilization to maintain adequate reservoir capacity and ensure reliable water supply and power generation; and (2) regulating the water-sediment ratios in lower channels through coordinated reservoir group operations to ensure the integrated performance of multi-objective services, such as flood discharge, sediment transport, and socio-ecological regulation, in downstream areas (Table 3 and Table 4). These downstream constraints also serve as boundary conditions for integrated reservoir allocation strategies.

5. Integrated Allocation of Water and Sediment Resources in Geological Units

5.1. The Jiziwan Region

The Jiziwan region is located in the upper-middle reaches of the YRB (Figure 2). This region contains reservoirs and irrigation areas [37]. It is a representative case that illustrates the socio-economic and ecological effects of integrated water-sediment resource allocation across both artificial and geological units. Since the 1980s, the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia section in the Jiziwan region has experienced channel narrowing caused by sediment deposition due to sediment influx from the Yellow River mainstem, its tributaries (e.g., Qingshui River and the Ten Tributaries), and surrounding desert regions. This has led to reduced flow capacity in the main channel and the formation of new suspended rivers. The integrated allocation of water and sediment resources plays a vital role in addressing issues of sedimentation, channel contraction, and ice-flood threats in the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia section [63].
Water resource demands in the Jiziwan region include industrial and agricultural production (particularly for energy industries), domestic use, in-channel ecological water, and off-channel ecological water (Table 3 and Table 4). Sediment resource utilization practices in this region include river sand mining, silt deposition for levee reinforcement, and ecological remediation (Table 3 and Table 4). River sand mining is primarily conducted in coarse sediment channels such as the Ten Tributaries, and the extracted sand is directly adopted for construction purposes. Silt deposition is mainly employed to reinforce levees in newly suspended rivers within the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia section, ensuring flood and ice-flood safety. Ecological remediation typically involves the use of sediment to backfill coal mining subsidence zones, rehabilitate abandoned mining areas, and restore degraded soil. Beyond riverine sediments, the Jiziwan region also has extensive terrestrial sandy land resources, which are distributed across various desert areas, including the Kubuqi Desert, Ulan Buh Desert, Tengger Desert, and Mu Us Desert [38]. A distinctive desert economy has emerged, featuring economic crop cultivation and wind-solar photovoltaic development.
As illustrated in Figure 5, there is intense competition for water and sediment resources between socio-economic development and ecological conservation in the Jiziwan region (Table 3). However, through integrated management strategies, such as water-sediment exchange, water resources conservation, and graded/partitioned/classified sediment utilization, socio-economic water and sediment demands can be met without increasing overall consumption or inducing additional sediment-related risks (transitioning from allocation scenarios A to B). Furthermore, the socio-economic and ecological benefits of water and sediment resource utilization can be simultaneously improved, thereby facilitating synergistic development (transitioning from equilibrium points 1 to 2). The core strategy for integrated water-sediment allocation in this region is “sediment interception in exchange for water” [64]. Governance efforts aim to reduce sediment entry into river channels, thereby lowering the water volume required to transport sediment. The resulting water savings are then directed towards socio-economic development and ecological protection initiatives. Hence, the key to achieving sustainable socio-economic development and ecological health in the Jiziwan region lies in the scientific allocation of water and sediment resource utilization volumes and techniques, as well as in determining appropriate thresholds for water and sediment use (Table 3).

5.2. Lower Channel

The lower channel of the Yellow River exhibits a typical compound cross-sectional structure, encompassing river channels and floodplain areas between the main river course and levee. Currently, land utilization in the downstream floodplain areas of the Yellow River is primarily limited to non-irrigated farmland [65] (Table 2), which can be constrained by the spatial boundaries of both the river channels and levees. Water resource demands in the lower channel include agricultural irrigation, industrial production, domestic use, in-channel ecological water, and off-channel ecological water (Table 3 and Table 4). Sediment resource utilization focuses on river sand mining, silt deposition for levee reinforcement, and the construction of flood refuge platforms (Table 3 and Table 4). River sand mining typically involves the direct application of coarse sediment to support socio-economic development. Silt deposition for levee reinforcement involves diverting high-sediment-concentration flows or floodplain/channel sediment to the riverside of levees or landslide-prone zones. Riverside deposition elevates the floodplain crest, improving the floodplain’s transverse gradient and reducing the flood pressure of “secondary suspended rivers”. Landside deposition broadens and strengthens the levee body, preventing seepage, piping, leakage, and cracking during flood events. Flood refuge platforms serve as unique temporary flood protection structures in downstream floodplain areas of the Yellow River.
The major challenge in achieving sustainable development in the lower channel area lies in reconciling the natural functioning of the river system, such as flood conveyance, sediment transport, and sediment interception in floodplains and channels, with the socio-economic development needs of the floodplain zones. The core of this conflict is competition for land between human use and river processes (Table 3). Studies have suggested that granting rivers greater spatial mobility could result in notable ecological benefits [66]. Therefore, the optimization of the human-nature relationships in the downstream floodplain zone requires comprehensive river system management [39].
The integrated allocation of water and sediment resources in the lower channel is centered on establishing coordinated water-sediment correlations. The major regulation and allocation measures include: (1) modifying the water and sediment loads entering the lower channel by implementing soil-water conservation and constructing siltation dams on the Loess Plateau; (2) optimizing the spatiotemporal allocation processes through upstream and midstream reservoirs to shape favorable riverbeds for flood discharge and sediment transport [40]; and (3) establishing rational engineering structures, such as levees, channel improvements, flood detention basins, and production dikes, to enhance the water-sediment interactions in floodplains and channels.
As illustrated in Figure 6, to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and ecological health in the lower channel of the Yellow River, it is essential to delineate the spatial boundaries between socio-economic functions and ecological conservation in floodplain zones (Table 3). The high, lower, and tender floodplains, respectively, serve as the spatial zones for residential settlement, agriculture, and ecological restoration, corresponding to the “Three Functions” governance model. Specifically, the high floodplain accommodates resettlement, the lower floodplain supports efficient eco-agriculture, and the tender floodplain is designated for constructing ecological corridors. This tripartite spatial layout, which divides the channel into three functionally distinct floodplain zones, can offer a rational governance strategy for downstream Yellow River management. While the “Three Floodplains-Three Functions” framework has gained wide acceptance, it remains a challenge [67]. For example, defining the boundaries among the three floodplain types and their respective river channels, as well as determining the capacity of each zone, remains crucial for adapting to complex water-sediment scenarios under future environmental change. In particular, the socio-economic and ecological demands for water and sediment under varying hydrological conditions, including low water with high sediment, medium water with medium sediment, or high water with low sediment, should be dynamically adjusted.

5.3. Estuarine Delta

The Yellow River Delta is a river-dominated, sediment-rich estuarine system, where the discharge of water and sediment into the sea represents the most characteristic hydrological process. Hydrodynamic and sediment transport conditions are key factors that influence geomorphological changes in the delta. Fine-particle sediment deposition at river mouths forms sandbars, raising the erosion base level, thereby affecting flood discharge and sediment transport. Regulatory measures, such as water and sediment control, ecological water supplementation, and agricultural development, can significantly alter hydrological and geomorphological processes in the delta [70,71].
Water resource demands in the estuarine delta include industrial and agricultural production, domestic consumption, in-channel ecological water, and off-channel ecological water (Table 3 and Table 4). Sediment resource utilization primarily involves land reclamation through siltation, land creation by sediment deposition, dredged sediment reuse, and wetland formation (Table 3 and Table 4). Areas near the river’s mainstem and tributary confluences in the Yellow River delta are particularly affected by severe soil salinization [42] (Table 2). Land reclamation through siltation has been a key strategy for addressing salinization. The Yellow River Delta wetland hosts the most extensive, best-preserved, and youngest wetland ecosystem in the warm-temperate zone of China. Sustaining this wetland system requires the regulation of both the quantity and processes of water and sediment delivery.
As illustrated in Figure 7, the maintenance of a dynamic balance between erosion and deposition along the estuary coastline and the preservation of ecological functions in the delta are necessary to regulate the total water and sediment loads delivered to the estuary and to manage their spatiotemporal distribution [72]. The critical sediment threshold for maintaining the water-sediment balance should also be defined to meet the needs of estuarine land formation and wetland protection. Furthermore, the flow path of the estuary significantly affects the sediment inflow thresholds. Therefore, the key to the integrated allocation of water and sediment resources in estuarine deltas lies in regulating the water and sediment delivery upstream of the estuary, optimizing the spatiotemporal processes, and managing the estuarine flow path within the delta system.

6. Conclusions

The main conclusions of this study are as follows. In irrigation areas of the YRB, the primary challenge lies in regulating the load and spatiotemporal distribution of incoming water and sediment through engineered measures. In reservoirs, integrated allocation involves dynamic water-sediment regulation through maintaining reservoir storage capacity and coordinating the operation of reservoir networks. In the Jiziwan region, achieving socio-economic and ecological sustainability requires thresholds for water-sediment utilization that balance resource exploitation with ecological protection. In lower channels, sustainable development depends on clearly delineated spatial boundaries between socio-economic use areas and ecological preservation zones within the floodplain. In estuarine deltas, key management strategies include regulating upstream sediment supply, optimizing spatiotemporal deposition dynamics, and managing distributary flow paths.
As this study aims to propose and advance a conceptual framework and approach for integrated water-sediment allocation based on their interrelationships, it lacks quantitative analysis. There is an urgent need to identify the regulatory thresholds for water and sediment resources under sustainability goals, thereby improving the socio-economic and ecological outcomes of resource regulation. Thus, future research should consider water-sediment correlations, construct various allocation conditions, and dynamically adjust socio-economic and ecological relationships. Furthermore, to balance sustainable socio-economic development and ecological health at the unit and basin scales, researchers should adopt a basin-scale perspective, accounting for the cumulative, threshold, and lag effects of downstream water and sediment conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.H., E.J., and B.Q.; software, L.H., and J.L.; validation, Y.L., and J.L.; investigation, Y.L., and C.L.; resources, E.J.; writing—original draft, L.H.; writing—review and editing, C.L., J.J., and B.Q.; supervision, E.J.; funding acquisition, E.J., L.H., and B.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. U2243601 and 52409027), and Hydraulic Cadre Education and Training Project (102126222015800019041), and the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund (HKF202402).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the impacts of water-sediment utilization and allocation on socioeconomic development and the ecological system.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the impacts of water-sediment utilization and allocation on socioeconomic development and the ecological system.
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Figure 2. Geographic locations of the five representative units within the YRB.
Figure 2. Geographic locations of the five representative units within the YRB.
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Figure 3. Techniques, objectives, and socio-economic-ecological benefits of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources in irrigation areas [58,59].
Figure 3. Techniques, objectives, and socio-economic-ecological benefits of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources in irrigation areas [58,59].
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Figure 4. Framework for integrated allocation of water and sediment resources by reservoirs and its effects on socio-economics and ecology [60,61,62].
Figure 4. Framework for integrated allocation of water and sediment resources by reservoirs and its effects on socio-economics and ecology [60,61,62].
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Figure 5. Impact of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on the socio-economic development and ecological system of the Jiziwan region.
Figure 5. Impact of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on the socio-economic development and ecological system of the Jiziwan region.
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Figure 6. Effects of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on socio-economy and ecology zoning in the lower river channel [68,69].
Figure 6. Effects of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on socio-economy and ecology zoning in the lower river channel [68,69].
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Figure 7. Effects of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on sustainable socio-economic development and ecological system in the estuarine delta.
Figure 7. Effects of integrated allocation of water and sediment resources on sustainable socio-economic development and ecological system in the estuarine delta.
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Table 1. Water and sediment management concepts, achievements, and shortcomings in the governance of the YRB at different stages [33,34,35].
Table 1. Water and sediment management concepts, achievements, and shortcomings in the governance of the YRB at different stages [33,34,35].
Landmark EventUnderstanding of the Water-Sediment RelationshipPolicy MeasuresEffectivenessShortcomings
In 1949, the Yellow River Water Conservancy Commission was established.Water resources were primarily viewed in terms of flood control and utilization. Sediment was regarded as a disaster-inducing element, whereas water flow served as the main mechanism for sediment regulation.Huayun Wang and others successively proposed river management strategies such as ‘widening the river and reinforcing embankments’, ‘storing water and trapping sand’, ‘blocking upstream and draining downstream with sand trapped on both banks’, ‘regulating water and sediment’, and ‘intercepting, utilizing, regulating, and draining’.Improved flood control and ensured safety.Severe siltation and narrowing of the downstream river channel, increased frequency of flooding in the middle reaches, and rapid formation of a ‘secondary suspended river’ exacerbate flood control challenges.
In 2002, the Yellow River’s first experimental water transfer and sand adjustment operations were launched.Sediment was recognized as both a hazard and an utilizable resource. Engineering measures were introduced to regulate water and sediment simultaneously.In 2002, the Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of China adopted the strategy of ‘upstream retention and downstream drainage with bilateral flood retention’ for flood control, and the strategy of ‘interception, discharge, release, regulation, and dredging’ for sediment management and utilization.Marked progress has been made in flushing lower channels, maintaining flow capacity in midstream reaches, enhancing reservoir sediment discharge efficiency, and improving estuarine ecology.The erosion efficiency in the lower channels was significantly decreased. Reservoir siltation remains serious. Limited momentum for continued sediment flushing and water diversion.
In 2022, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of the Yellow River was promulgated, officially introducing the concept of ‘comprehensive sediment utilization’.Greater emphasis was placed on sediment resource attributes, with a focus on coordinated regulation of water and sediment to achieve comprehensive utilization.The water and sediment control system was structured around major water projects such as key reservoirs, with emphasis on joint water-sediment transfer, comprehensive sediment treatment and utilization, and enhanced sediment retention and transport capacity. A holistic approach to sediment management was adopted, involving ‘interception, regulation, discharge, release, and dredging’.It enables integrated water–sediment management across the entire basin, supporting socio-economic development and ecological health.As its implementation is still in its early stages, theoretical frameworks and governance approaches remain underdeveloped.
Table 2. Socio-economic and ecological characteristics of the five units in the YRB.
Table 2. Socio-economic and ecological characteristics of the five units in the YRB.
UnitsSocio-Economic CharacteristicsEcological CharacteristicsReferences
Irrigation areaThe annual total grain production in the irrigation districts of the YRB reaches 67.96 million tons, accounting for 14.0% of China’s total grain output. Currently, the output value of industries and services in irrigation districts surpasses that of agriculture.The ecological value of irrigation areas primarily stems from farmland-based ecosystem services, with the upper and middle reaches playing critical ecological roles in the basin. The ecology of irrigation districts exhibits distinct seasonality, with ecosystem service functions being significantly stronger during the crop growing season compared to the non-growing season. Different crops vary in water requirements, carbon absorption capacity, and impact on soil, leading to differences in their provision of ecosystem services.[36]
ReservoirsThe socio-economic benefits of reservoirs are primarily reflected in water supply, hydropower generation, and coarse sediment utilization.Ecological benefits are primarily associated with aquatic ecosystem services and soil improvement resulting from fine sediment deposition. The ecology of the reservoir itself is primarily reflected in the wetland area within the reservoir region and its ecological functions. For example, the Sanmenxia Reservoir area serves as a wintering habitat for whooper swans, and the minimum required discharge flow at the Sanmenxia Hydrological Station is set to 258.7 × 108 m3/a.[23,30]
Jiziwan
region		The region supports a population of approximately 21.19 million and has a regional GDP of 1.84 × 104 billion yuan. Urban expansion increased from 25.95% to 97.58% between 2000 and 2020.This arid region experiences limited precipitation, with mean annual temperatures ranging from 5.5 to 8.7 °C and annual precipitation varying between 145 and 607 mm. The fragile ecosystem exhibits degraded habitat quality, with 42.94% of the total area classified as poor-quality habitat. Located in an arid and water-deficient region and further impacted by land desertification, the local ecosystem is fragile, with 42.94% of the area classified as low-quality habitat. The minimum in-stream ecological water requirement at the control section of Toudaoguai Hydrological Station is 200.0 × 108 m3/a.[37,38]
Lower channelThe area supports a population of nearly one million residents, with an agriculture-dominated economy in which over 80% of the non-water surface is cultivated cropland.This ecosystem consists mainly of agricultural and aquatic ecosystems. In 2020, the floodplain area of the lower Yellow River consisted of 67% cropland, 14% water bodies, and 6% forest and grassland, with the remaining area being construction land and unused land. The minimum required discharge flow at the Huayuankou control section is set to 282.8 × 108 m3/a.[39,40]
Estuarine deltaThe delta covers approximately 1.2 × 104 km2 and has a GDP of approximately 340.109 billion yuan.This region is characterized by low precipitation, high evaporation, elevated groundwater tables with high salinity, and widespread salt-affected soils, posing significant risks of salinization. Particularly, from 1984 to 2022, the salinization index in the northeastern region continued to show an increasing trend. The delta wetland supports a wide range of habitats and has over 300 bird species. The minimum in-stream ecological water requirement at the Lijin Hydrological Station control section is set to 187.0 × 108 m3/a.[41,42,43]
Table 3. Consequences of water-sediment allocations on socio-economic development and ecological systems in the YRB.
Table 3. Consequences of water-sediment allocations on socio-economic development and ecological systems in the YRB.
UnitsResourcesSocio-Economic ConsequencesEcological Consequences
SocietyEconomyPositive ImpactsNegative Impacts
Irrigation areaWaterEnsuring the irrigation water supplyIncreasing residents’ incomeAppropriate water availability helps sustain farmland ecosystems.Drought, water scarcity, or flooding can damage farmland ecosystems. Agricultural drainage may lead to ecosystem degradation.
SedimentImproving soil quality, thereby supporting agricultural productivityIncreasing agricultural output value.Reducing saline-alkali land and enhancing ecosystem service valueExcessive sediment can cause land desertification.
ReservoirsWaterSupporting flood prevention, disaster mitigation, water supply, and utilization of floodwater resourcesGenerating hydroelectric powerEnsuring ecological flow in the lower river channels of reservoirsThe construction of reservoirs can disrupt the connectivity of aquatic ecosystems and affect the cycling of nutrients and fish habitats [46,47]. Water-sediment regulation may impact the survival of plankton.
SedimentDredging and utilization of sediment create employment opportunities.Sediment used as a construction materialSediment deposition can increase wetland areas in the reservoir region, provide habitats for aquatic organisms, improve reservoir water quality, and promote ecosystem restoration in and around the reservoir area.During water and sediment regulation operations, excessively high sediment concentrations may occur, reducing dissolved oxygen levels and endangering aquatic life. When the maximum sediment concentration reaches 70~80 kg/m3, and the average concentration is 4~5 kg/m3 during sediment flushing, fish density can decrease by 73%, and biomass may drop by 66% [48].
Jiziwan regionWaterSatisfying domestic water demandMeeting industrial and agricultural water requirementsSupporting ecological water needs within and beyond river channelsDrought, water scarcity, and flooding can damage ecosystems. Agricultural drainage may lead to ecosystem degradation.
SedimentReinforcing levees through silt depositionRiver sand is mined for construction use.Ecological restorationExcessive sediment can cause land desertification.
Lower channelWaterMeeting domestic water demandSupporting agricultural irrigation and industrial useSatisfying ecological water requirements within and beyond the river channelFloods can destroy farmland and forest ecosystems in floodplain areas.
SedimentUsed for levee reinforcement and the construction of flood refuge platformsRiver sand is mined for construction use.Creating farmland or landscape spaces through silt deposition can enhance the value of artificial ecosystem services.During high-sediment floods, silt accumulation can alter the ecological spatial layout of floodplains and river morphology, affecting fish habitats [49].
Estuarine deltaWaterMeeting domestic water demandSupporting industrial and agricultural productionSatisfying ecological water requirements within and beyond river channelsInsufficient water flow can lead to wetland degradation, while excessive water volumes may damage flora and fauna habitats.
SedimentLand reclamation through siltationAfter land creation through silt deposition, developing natural parks can boost tourism.Land reclamation through siltation and land creation via sediment deposition, dredged sediment reuse, and wetland formation.Inadequate sediment supply can result in the degradation of coastal wetlands and coastal zone ecosystems; excessively high sediment concentrations increase water turbidity, reduce underwater light availability, and impair submerged photosynthesis and aquatic organism survival.
Table 4. Major concerns related to water-sediment, socio-economy and ecology of the five units in the YRB.
Table 4. Major concerns related to water-sediment, socio-economy and ecology of the five units in the YRB.
UnitsWater and SedimentSocio-Economic DevelopmentEcological SystemSocioeconomic-Ecological NexusReferences
Irrigation areaRegulating water-sediment processes entering irrigation districts.Safeguarding agricultural production.Regulating sediment discharge to mitigate land desertification and salinization issues.The conflict between socio-economic development and farmland ecosystems over water resource utilization.[36,50]
ReservoirsPreventing reservoir sedimentation while regulating downstream water-sediment conditions.Ensuring water supply and hydropower generation.Regulating the water and sediment discharge process to ensure the ecological flow demand downstream. Ensuring the stability of biological habitats in the reservoir area and downstream regions.Competition among water supply, power generation, flood control, and ecological flow requirements.[23,24]
Jiziwan regionEnhancing flood safety and reducing sediment inflow to the Yellow River.Supporting industrial/agricultural activities and domestic water use.Optimizing water resource utilization and combating land desertification to enhance ecosystem services.Coordinating the conflict between socio-economic development and ecological needs in water-sediment allocation through human activities such as ecological restoration measures.[37,51,52]
Lower channelImproving flood protection and alleviating suspended river conditions.Protecting the lives and property of residents.Regulating the water-sediment relationship and controlling the scope of sediment deposition to maintain a certain extent of wetland areas in the riparian zone and sustain agricultural ecological zones in the floodplain areas.The contradiction between socio-economic development space and ecological space.[39,53,54]
Estuarine deltaMaintaining sediment-water fluxes to the sea.Sustaining industrial/agricultural and domestic water security.Regulating the water and sediment input to the estuary area to maintain the estuarine wetlands. Mitigating the impact of water-sediment variations on vegetation types and alleviating land salinization issues.Conflicts between socio-economic development and ecological systems over water resource use, as well as the tension between the need for suitable sediment levels to maintain wetland ecosystems and the demand for low-sediment water for socio-economic purposes.[43,55]
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Hao, L.; Jiang, E.; Qu, B.; Liu, C.; Jia, J.; Liu, Y.; Li, J. Integrated Allocation of Water-Sediment Resources and Its Impacts on Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems in the Yellow River Basin. Water 2025, 17, 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17192821

AMA Style

Hao L, Jiang E, Qu B, Liu C, Jia J, Liu Y, Li J. Integrated Allocation of Water-Sediment Resources and Its Impacts on Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems in the Yellow River Basin. Water. 2025; 17(19):2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17192821

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hao, Lingang, Enhui Jiang, Bo Qu, Chang Liu, Jia Jia, Ying Liu, and Jiaqi Li. 2025. "Integrated Allocation of Water-Sediment Resources and Its Impacts on Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems in the Yellow River Basin" Water 17, no. 19: 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17192821

APA Style

Hao, L., Jiang, E., Qu, B., Liu, C., Jia, J., Liu, Y., & Li, J. (2025). Integrated Allocation of Water-Sediment Resources and Its Impacts on Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Systems in the Yellow River Basin. Water, 17(19), 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17192821

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