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Review

Lignocellulosic Waste-Derived Nanomaterials: Types and Applications in Wastewater Pollutant Removal

by
Farabi Hossain
1,
Md Enamul Hoque
2,*,
Aftab Ahmad Khan
3,* and
Md Arifuzzaman
3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
2
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
3
Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, King Faisal University, Al-Hofuf P.O. Box 380, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(16), 2426; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162426 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 28 May 2025 / Revised: 16 June 2025 / Accepted: 18 June 2025 / Published: 17 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biotechnologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment, 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

Industrial wastewater pollution has reached acute levels in the environment; consequently, scientists are developing new sustainable treatment methods. Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) stands as a promising raw material because it originates from agricultural waste, forestry residues, and energy crop production. This review examines the application of nanomaterials derived from lignocellulosic resources in wastewater management, highlighting their distinctive physical and chemical properties, including a large surface area, adjustable porosity structure, and multifunctional group capability. The collection of nanomaterials incorporating cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) with lignin nanoparticles, as well as biochar and carbon-based nanostructures, demonstrates high effectiveness in extracting heavy metals, dyes, and organic pollutants through adsorption, membrane filtration, and catalysis mechanisms. Nanomaterials have benefited from recent analytical breakthroughs that improve both their manufacturing potential and eco-friendly character through hybrid catalysis methods and functionalization procedures. This review demonstrates the ability of nanomaterials to simultaneously turn waste into valuable product while cleaning up the environment through their connection to circular bioeconomic principles and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This review addresses hurdles related to feedstock variability, production costs, and lifecycle impacts, demonstrating the capability of lignocellulosic nanomaterials to transform wastewater treatment operations while sustaining global sustainability.

1. Introduction

Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) is a renewable resource sourced from energy crops, agricultural residues, and forestry by-products, making it one of the earth’s most widespread natural materials [1,2,3].
This abundant resource holds immense significance due to its role in addressing pressing global challenges, including the dependency on non-renewable energy sources like oil, coal, and natural gas, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, climate warming, and substantial environmental destruction [4,5,6]. LB stands out as a cornerstone of sustainable development, offering a pathway to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and combat environmental pollution, thereby supporting the transition to renewable energy solutions and sustainable waste management strategies [1,2,3].
LB is widely produced and available, positioning it as a globally accessible feedstock [7,8]. Its abundance is driven by its origins in agricultural waste, forestry residues, and dedicated energy crops, ensuring a steady supply for innovative applications [1,2,3].
LB serves multiple critical uses, notably in biofuel production, where its composition of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin determines the efficiency of conversion processes, with advanced pretreatment methods being required to overcome its recalcitrant nature [9,10]. Beyond biofuels, LB-derived nanomaterials have emerged as a transformative tool in wastewater treatment, leveraging properties such as large surface areas, adjustable porosity, and functional group capabilities [11,12,13,14]. These nanomaterials excel in extracting heavy metals, dyes, and organic pollutants from industrial waste streams through mechanisms like adsorption, membrane filtration, and catalysis [15,16]. Additional applications include the use of biochar to recover nutrients and mitigate environmental impacts in wastewater treatment [17], bacteria–algae co-cultures to detoxify pretreatment wastewater while reducing carbon emissions [18], and chemically adjusted biosorbents to remove toxic pollutants [19]. The integration of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) further enhances nanomaterial properties for diverse sustainable applications [20], while biopolymers from LB offer eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic materials [21].
Despite these advancements, a comprehensive synthesis of the current research on LB-derived nanomaterials for wastewater treatment remains absent, necessitating this review. The rapid evolution of green nanomaterials and their potential in environmental cleanup operations highlight the urgency to consolidate knowledge and address gaps in understanding their full capabilities. Green nanomaterials, especially lignocellulosic nanomaterials, create a sustainable solution that simultaneously benefits environmental relationships. They also contribute to health protection through the qualities of biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity, making them safe for use in the medical sector [22]. Plant-based nanomaterials represent an emerging contemporary antibiotic alternative that provides improved medical outcomes through reduced toxic effects on human cells [23].
The implications of this work are profound, aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by promoting clean water access and sustainable industrial practices [4]. By transforming lignocellulosic waste into valuable nanomaterials, this research supports a circular bioeconomy, enhancing resource recovery, carbon neutrality, and carbon sequestration while reducing environmental harm [24,25]. These efforts underscore LB’s potential to simultaneously tackle waste management and pollution on a global scale [11,12,26,27].
The scope of this review involves the application of LB-derived nanomaterials in sustainable wastewater treatment, focusing on their extraction, properties, and pollutant removal efficiencies. The review also examines challenges such as production scalability and cost-effectiveness, alongside future prospects. The review is structured to first outline LB’s foundational role, followed by detailed discussions on nanomaterial synthesis, their applications in wastewater management, associated challenges, and emerging opportunities for advancing global sustainability.

1.1. Lignocellulosic Biomass

Lignocellulosic biomass is primarily composed of three biopolymers: cellulose (35–60%), hemicellulose (20–40%), and lignin (10–25%) [28,29]. These components provide structural integrity to plants but also present challenges due to their recalcitrant nature. Cellulose is a crystalline homopolymer characterized by strong hydrogen bonding networks that confer mechanical strength and chemical stability. Hemicellulose is an amorphous heteropolymer that contributes flexibility to plant cell walls. Lignin, a complex phenolic polymer with aromatic structures and diverse functional groups such as hydroxyl (-OH) and carboxyl (-COOH), provides rigidity but is highly resistant to degradation [30,31]. The complex structures of these materials create obstacles for their transformation into valuable products, yet their potential remains high due to their renewable nature [32,33]. The global production of lignocellulosic biomass is estimated to be approximately 200 billion tons annually [34]. Despite its abundance and renewability, the structural complexity of lignocellulosic biomass necessitates advanced pretreatment methods, such as thermal decomposition or gamma-valerolactone (GVL)-based fractionation, to unlock its potential for conversion into high-value products, including biochar, bio-oil, syngas, or nanomaterials [26,35].

1.2. Nanomaterials Derived from Lignocellulosic Biomass

Nanomaterials derived from lignocellulosic biomass include nanocellulose, for instance, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), and carbon-based nanostructures such as graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), lignin nanoparticles (LiG NPs), and biochar. These materials exhibit exceptional properties, including high surface area-to-volume ratios, tunable porosity, mechanical strength, chemical reactivity, and functional group diversity. For example,
  • CNCs possess high adsorption capacities for heavy metals like Pb(II) and Cr(VI) due to their surface charge tunability [29].
  • GO effectively removes dyes and organic pollutants via electrostatic interactions [36].
  • MnO2-modified lignin nanoparticles demonstrate adsorption capacities of up to 806 mg/g for methylene blue dye removal [37].
These attributes make lignocellulosic-derived nanomaterials ideal candidates for wastewater treatment applications such as the adsorption of pollutants, the catalytic degradation of contaminants, antimicrobial coatings, and membrane filtration technologies [38,39].

1.3. Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment

Water pollution caused by industrial effluents containing heavy metals, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and other hazardous contaminants poses significant risks to human health and ecosystems. Conventional wastewater treatment methods often fail due to inefficiency at low pollutant concentrations, high operational costs, or the generation of secondary waste. Utilizing lignocellulosic biomass for wastewater treatment addresses both environmental pollution and transforms waste into valuable resources, thereby enhancing sustainability through closed-loop systems and recycling waste materials into biofuels [40]. Nanotechnology offers a promising alternative by enabling the development of advanced materials with superior adsorption capacities and catalytic efficiencies [16,41]. Nanomaterials such as magnetite nanoparticles (Fe3O4) have unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area and reactivity, which make them ideal for pollutant adsorption and biodegradation processes. Their integration with biological systems enhances the efficiency of wastewater treatment [42]. In Figure 1, the process of utilizing nanomaterials in wastewater treatment is illustrated.
Nanomaterials derived from lignocellulosic biomass effectively address these challenges. Biochar exhibits excellent adsorption properties for heavy metals like Zn(II) through ion exchange mechanisms. Functionalized CNCs enhance selectivity for specific contaminants such as Cr(VI) or methylene blue via carboxylation or phosphorylation processes [29]. Magnetite nanoparticles derived from lignocellulose offer superparamagnetic behavior for easy recovery using magnetic fields while efficiently adsorbing pollutants like Pb(II) and Cu(II) [43].
This review aims to critically explore the potential of lignocellulosic waste as a pioneer for nanomaterial innovation in advancing sustainable wastewater treatment technologies. It emphasizes key aspects, including extraction methods, material properties, pollutant removal mechanisms, scalability challenges, economic feasibility, and prospects. By integrating insights from diverse studies across the field, this work aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how lignocellulose-derived nanomaterials can revolutionize wastewater treatment, addressing pressing environmental concerns globally. In Figure 2, a detailed overview of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in wastewater treatment, from feedstock to application, is presented.

2. Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Renewable Resource

2.1. Sources and Availability

Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) is a widely available renewable resource derived from agricultural residues (e.g., sugarcane bagasse, rice straw, corn stover, and wheat straw), forestry by-products (e.g., sawdust and wood chips), and industrial waste streams (e.g., paper pulp and sewage sludge) [1,2,4]. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass and Miscanthus, also contribute significantly to its supply. The global production of lignocellulosic biomass exceeds 200 billion tons annually, making it an abundant and cost-effective feedstock for bio-based applications [34,37,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]. Forestry residues and non-wood sources, such as flowers and leaves, further expand the biomass pool [16,35,51]. Industrial wastes, such as xylose residue (XR) and oil palm trunk fibers, are also promising sources for the synthesis of nanomaterials [52]. Importantly, LB does not compete with food production systems, making it a sustainable second-generation feedstock [34].

2.2. Structural Composition

Lignocellulosic biomass is primarily composed of three biopolymers: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. These components are intricately organized to provide structural integrity to plants.
Cellulose: Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-D-glucose units linked by β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It forms crystalline microfibrils that impart mechanical strength and rigidity [11,26,27]. Its crystalline regions are highly resistant to enzymatic degradation but are valuable for nanocrystal production [29].
Hemicellulose: Hemicellulose is an amorphous heteropolymer composed of pentoses (e.g., xylose) and hexoses (e.g., mannose). It serves as a matrix linking cellulose and lignin but has lower thermal stability compared to cellulose [1,26].
Lignin: Lignin is a complex aromatic polymer composed of monolignols such as p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol. It provides rigidity and hydrophobicity but hinders enzymatic hydrolysis due to its recalcitrance [28,53]. Other minor components include extractives, such as terpenes, and ash which contribute to the chemical complexity of LB [3].

2.3. Current Utilization

Despite its abundance, lignocellulosic biomass remains underutilized due to its structural recalcitrance. There are noteworthy traditional applications. LB is extensively used for bioethanol production through enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. Other biofuels, such as biodiesel and biohydrogen, are also derived from LB using dark fermentation processes [35,51]. The pyrolysis of LB produces biochar for soil amendment or environmental remediation applications [45]. Cellulose fibers from LB are used in the paper manufacturing process. However, this process underutilizes hemicellulose and lignin components [54].
Emerging applications aim to valorize all components of LB into high-value products. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and lignin nanoparticles are being explored for their potential applications in composites, aerogels, and membranes, with a focus on water treatment technologies [29]. Hemicellulose and cellulose derivatives are being developed into bio-based plastics with enhanced biodegradability [55]. Lignin is being converted into carbon fibers and activated carbons for the adsorption of pollutants [56].
Advanced pretreatment methods, such as acid hydrolysis or deep eutectic solvents (DES), have enabled the efficient fractionation of LB into its functional components. This has expanded its utility in producing platform chemicals, such as furfural, and specialty materials, including nanocellulose composites [52,57]. Only 10–15% of lignocellulosic waste is currently valorized, primarily for low-value applications such as animal feed or combustion. High-value applications, such as nanocellulose production, remain underexplored [58,59].

3. Nanomaterials from Lignocellulosic Waste

3.1. Types of Nanomaterials

Lignocellulosic biomass serves as a versatile precursor for various nanomaterials, including:
Nanocellulose: This comprises cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), known for their high mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and biodegradability [11,26,60,61]. CNCs are characterized by high crystallinity and functional groups, such as sulfate or carboxyl groups, which enhance adsorption [29,62]. Fe-Cu composites with CNCs adsorb Pb(II) (85.8 mg/g) through chelation [29,62,63,64]. CNFs exhibit high aspect ratios and tunable surface chemistry [12,38].
Lignin-Based Nanoparticles: These offer antioxidant properties, UV resistance, and hydrophobicity, making them suitable for pollutant adsorption, drug delivery, and environmental remediation [27,28,55]. Functionalized lignin nanoparticles, such as MnO2-modified variants, enhance adsorption capacities due to hierarchical structures [37].
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: These include carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, and biochar-derived nanoparticles produced via pyrolysis or hydrothermal processes [2,26,65]. Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) derived from sugarcane bagasse exhibit photoluminescence and pollutant detection capabilities [36].
Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: These are synthesized using lignin or cellulose as reducing agents; these nanoparticles exhibit catalytic activity and pollutant binding potential [2,43]. Magnetite nanoparticles (Fe3O4) are applied for pollutant adsorption and microbial immobilization [42].
Other Nanomaterials: Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are used for enzyme immobilization and pollutant recovery [12]. Nanohemicelluloses and silica nanoparticles enhance film-forming properties and chemical stability, respectively [16,66]. In Table 1, different types of lignocellulosic biomass-derived nanomaterials and their properties are shown.

3.2. Extraction Techniques

Achieving a uniform distribution of nanoparticles in lignocellulosic biomass is critical for maximizing their effectiveness in treatment applications. Emerging green technologies like nanobiotechnology are addressing this challenge while focusing on sustainable processing methods [67]. In Table 2, a comparative overview of pretreatment methods for nanomaterial extraction is provided. The extraction of nanomaterials from lignocellulosic biomass involves a variety of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and biological methods, including the following:
Mechanical Methods: These include high-pressure homogenization, ball milling, and ultrasonication, which are employed to isolate CNFs but are energy-intensive [34,38].
Chemical Pretreatments: Acid hydrolysis dissolves amorphous cellulose regions to yield CNCs with high crystallinity [29]. Alkaline treatments remove lignin to expose cellulose fibers for further processing [26].
Thermal Processes: Pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization convert biomass into biochar or carbon-based nanostructures under controlled conditions [4,68].
Biological Methods: Enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulases or fungi like Aspergillus oryzae reduces energy consumption while preserving structural integrity [1,28].
Emerging Technologies: Techniques such as microwave-assisted extraction and solvent-based fractionation using green solvents like gamma-valerolactone (GVL) optimize yield while minimizing environmental impact [35,52].
Functionalization Techniques: Methods like TEMPO oxidation introduce carboxyl groups to enhance adsorption capacities for dyes and heavy metals [29].

3.3. Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials derived from lignocellulosic waste exhibit the following unique properties that make them suitable for diverse applications:
Surface Area and Porosity: High surface area-to-volume ratios (>500 m2/g) and mesoporous structures enhance adsorption capacities for pollutants such as heavy metals and dyes [12,15].
Mechanical Strength: Nanocellulose exhibits tensile strengths of up to ~220 GPa, making it ideal for durable membranes and composites [54].
Functional Group Diversity: Abundant oxygenated functional groups (-OH, -COOH) enable chemical modifications for specific applications like catalysis or pollutant binding [2,11].
Thermal Stability: Lignin-based nanoparticles demonstrate high thermal stability, making them suitable for biomedical applications [28].
Biocompatibility and Biodegradability: These properties minimize secondary pollution while supporting environmental sustainability in wastewater treatment systems [13,16].
Catalytic Activity: Carbon-based nanostructures exhibit excellent electrical conductivity and enhanced catalytic activity in environmental remediation processes [65,69]. In Table 3, a comparison is shown which provides detailed information on the feedstock sources, properties, pollutant removal efficiencies, and cost range of different lignocellulosic-derived nanomaterials.

4. Applications in Wastewater Treatment

4.1. Nanocellulose-Based Composites

Nanocellulose-based composites have emerged as efficient materials for wastewater treatment due to their high surface area, functional groups, and biodegradability. These composites are widely used for adsorbing heavy metals, such as Pb(II) and Cd(II), as well as organic pollutants like dyes and pharmaceuticals. Functionalized nanocellulose membranes demonstrate high selectivity in removing contaminants through mechanisms such as adsorption, size exclusion, or electrostatic interactions [11,12,26,55]. For example, carboxylated nanocellulose crystals (CNCs) exhibit an adsorption capacity of up to 1237 mg/g for Pb(II), while CNC-based aerogels effectively remove Cu(II), because of their porous structure [41]. Additionally, nanocellulose composites such as chitosan–CNC multilayers achieve over 99% oil–water separation, demonstrating their versatility [29]. The integration of nanomaterials into wastewater treatment processes enables innovative solutions for industrial effluents containing harmful contaminants. This includes the use of biochar as a catalyst and nanocatalysts to improve energy efficiency and pollutant degradation [67,70]. Nanocellulose composites are also utilized in membrane filtration systems, enhancing mechanical strength and fouling resistance. Modified CNCs improve water flux and chlorine resistance in thin-film composite membranes [16]. Real-world applications include CNC/graphene aerogels used for oil spill remediation and CNC-based adsorbents, which achieve 96% removal of Cr(VI) from industrial effluents [29,71]. Chitosan–CNC multilayers on stainless steel achieve 99.5% oil–water separation [29,62,63,64]. A study highlights the potential of amino-functionalized lignocellulosic biopolymers as effective and sustainable adsorbents for removing toxic anionic contaminants, such as Congo red and Cr(VI), from wastewater, demonstrating their excellent reusability and eco-friendly nature [72]. Another study highlights that chemically modified cellulosic biofibers, such as those derived from okra, can significantly enhance the adsorption capacity for heavy metal ions, offering a sustainable and cost-effective solution for wastewater remediation [73]. In Table 4, the pollutant removal efficiencies of various lignocellulosic nanomaterials are provided.

4.2. Catalytic Applications

Lignin-derived nanoparticles and biochar serve as catalysts or catalyst supports in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), enabling the degradation of organic pollutants like dyes and phenols. Functionalized biochar enhances the adsorption kinetics of heavy metals, such as Pb(II), Zn(II), and Cu(II), while maintaining a high recycling capacity over multiple cycles [52]. Similarly, MnO2–lignin nanocomposites exhibit superior adsorption capacities for dyes, such as methylene blue, due to chemical interactions between the MnO2 nanodots and dye molecules [37]. Biochar derived from lignocellulosic waste exhibits excellent catalytic properties due to its high porosity and environmental sustainability. Current research focuses on producing and activating biochar-based catalysts for wastewater remediation, with significant potential for removing hazardous contaminants [74]. Fe-modified lignocellulosic biochar simultaneously performs wastewater treatment by combining adsorption with catalytic performance, thus boosting treatment efficiency [75]. CNC-supported ZnO/TiO2 composites degrade organic dyes (e.g., 97% methylene blue removal) via photocatalysis [29,62,63,64]. Photocatalysis using nanocellulose–metal oxide hybrids or lignin-derived materials is another promising approach. For example, CNC-supported ZnO/TiO2 composites achieve over 97% methylene blue removal under UV light [29]. Fe3O4-lignin nanocomposites facilitate Fenton reactions, achieving a 95% reduction in phenol within two hours [36]. Magnetic nanoparticles immobilized with enzymes further enhance catalytic efficiency in pollutant degradation processes [34]. The integration of enzyme-based nanobiocatalysts in the treatment of lignocellulosic biomass wastewater can significantly enhance resource recovery, and it also minimizes environmental pollutants [76].

4.3. Lignin Valorization

Lignin valorization involves converting lignin into value-added products such as activated carbon, biochar, or nanoparticles for wastewater treatment. Lignin-derived biochar exhibits high adsorption capacities for pollutants like methylene blue and phenols due to its porous structure and functional groups [11,15]. Lignin nanoparticles are also utilized as adsorbents for toxic metals, such as Hg(II) and Cd(II), through ion exchange mechanisms or as precursors for activated carbon production [5,56]. Lignin-derived carbon quantum dots exhibit photocatalytic activity for degrading pharmaceuticals, while DES-based flocculants achieve over 99% turbidity reduction and simultaneous sterilization of harmful microorganisms like E. coli [52]. Additionally, lignin fractions from gamma-valerolactone processes can be used to produce carbon foams or battery anodes, contributing to environmental sustainability [35].

4.4. Agricultural Waste-Based Membranes for Wastewater Treatment

Agricultural waste-based membranes represent a promising sustainable solution for wastewater treatment applications, offering both environmental benefits and effective pollutant removal capabilities. Cellulose extracted from agricultural residues provides excellent mechanical strength for gas separation, water purification, and mixed matrix membrane applications [77]. Ultra-low-density nanostructured carbon and activated carbon aerogels derived from sugarcane bagasse, rice straw, wheat straw, and cotton stalks exhibit very high porosity (>50%) and surface area, enabling outstanding adsorption of organic dyes (249.6–1078 mg/g capacity), heavy metals (e.g., gold up to 650.08 mg/g), and various toxic chemicals with removal efficiencies of 98–99%. Nanocellulose-based variants also show similar results [77,78]. These bio-based membranes offer greener, cost-effective alternatives to petroleum-derived counterparts while valorizing agro-waste. Pretreatment using ultrafiltration (UF) followed by reverse osmosis (RO) membranes, which are fabricated from agricultural waste-derived materials, achieved nearly complete removal (approx. 100%) of TSS, COD, and BOD from pulp and paper mill wastewater [79]. Incorporating 5 wt.% corn starch into a clay–feldspar–quartz mix and sintering at 1000 °C yields ceramic supports with approximately 40% porosity and a 0.09 µm mean pore size, achieving 558.5 Lh−1m−2 water permeability. A thin polyamide 6 dip coating provides antifouling (flux recovery ratio 92.3%) and removes 99.97% of heavy metals from real agricultural drainage. Raw materials cost under USD 0.17 per m2, demonstrating the economic viability of using locally sourced agro wastes [80].

4.5. Case Studies: Real-World Applications

Numerous case studies highlight the practical efficacy of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in industrial wastewater treatment. In Table 5, the case studies are presented with various types of necessary information.

5. Related Challenges

The production and scaling up of nanomaterials from lignocellulosic biomass involve multifaceted challenges across technical, economic, and environmental dimensions. It is crucial to address these challenges to achieve industrial scalability, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. The primary challenge in utilizing lignocellulosic biomass lies in its recalcitrant structure. Lignin’s resistance to microbial degradation and hemicellulose’s hydrophilicity necessitate innovative pretreatment strategies for the efficient conversion of these materials into value-added products. Additionally, the underutilization of industrially produced lignin, of which only about 2% is currently valorized, represents a significant opportunity for research into high-value applications, such as binders or dispersants [28]. High energy costs for pyrolysis (≥700 °C) and enzymatic pretreatment (approximately 20% of the total cost) hinder commercialization [58,59].

5.1. Technical Barriers

Pretreatment methods such as pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and acid hydrolysis demand significant energy inputs, raising concerns about scalability [4,44,61]. Moreover, the heterogeneous composition of lignocellulosic biomass complicates the standardization of extraction processes and achieving consistent quality in nanomaterials [31,34,53]. Achieving high yields and purity during extraction remains challenging due to the recalcitrant structure of biomass [32,83]. Additionally, maintaining uniform particle size distribution and material stability during synthesis is difficult [28,56]. Scaling up laboratory processes to industrial levels is hindered by the complexity of techniques such as microwave-assisted pyrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis [50,69]. Reusability issues like inefficient regeneration methods for solvents and declining adsorption capacity after multiple cycles pose additional hurdles [29,52].

5.2. Economic Viability

The cost of advanced technologies like ionic liquids, green solvents, enzymatic hydrolysis, and mechanical disintegration limits commercial scalability [12,14,26,29]. High initial capital costs for biorefineries and advanced equipment hinder widespread adoption despite long-term benefits [84,85]. Nanomaterials from lignocellulosic waste must compete with traditional materials like activated carbon, which are significantly cheaper (approx. 1–5 USD/kg vs. approx. 50 USD/kg for CNC production) [29,62]. Developing value-added products like nanocomposites or biofuels is essential to offset production costs [35,86]. In Table 6, the economic and environmental metrics of lignocellulosic nanomaterial production are presented.
In addition, the economic viability of producing nanomaterials from lignocellulosic biomass is further complicated by geographical variations in LB availability and processing costs. The type and abundance of LB differ significantly across regions due to climate, agricultural practices, and forestry activities. For instance, tropical regions like Asia and Latin America generate large quantities of agricultural residues (such as sugarcane bagasse and rice straw), while temperate regions like North America and Europe produce more forestry residues (wood chips and corn stover). These differences influence feedstock accessibility and cost. Additionally, the affordability of advanced processing methods, such as enzymatic hydrolysis or microwave-assisted extraction, varies by region and depends on local infrastructure, labor costs, and access to technology. Developed regions may leverage advanced methods, while developing regions may require simpler, cost-effective alternatives. Table 7 illustrates these geographical disparities and their impact on feasibility.

5.3. Environmental Considerations

Chemical pretreatments generate toxic by-products and sulfate-rich wastewater that require effective disposal strategies to avoid secondary pollution [1,29]. The environmental footprint of energy-intensive processes like pyrolysis (approx. 700 °C) must be minimized through renewable energy integration or process optimization [45,61]. The potential ecotoxicity of nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes necessitates rigorous lifecycle assessments to prevent unintended ecological impacts [36,39]. Transitioning to greener synthesis methods using supercritical CO2 or recyclable solvents like GVL is critical to ensure sustainability [41,84]. Closed-loop systems for solvent recovery and zero-waste principles are essential for reducing environmental risks during large-scale production [52].

5.4. Integrated Challenges

The interplay between technical barriers, economic viability, and environmental considerations highlights the complexity of scaling up nanomaterial production. There are several integral challenges; for example, energy-intensive pretreatment methods exacerbate both economic and environmental challenges. High costs associated with advanced technologies limit their adoption despite the potential to reduce environmental impacts. Moreover, the toxicity of inevitable by-products demands innovative solutions that align with sustainability goals while maintaining economic feasibility.

6. Innovations and Future Prospects

6.1. Emerging Technologies

The development of choline-based ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents as green solvents has revolutionized sustainable LB processing and pretreatment methods by diminishing environmental effects according to [46,87]. The efficiency of producing lignocellulosic nanomaterials has increased via advancements in enzymatic hydrolysis methods, coupled with bio-based solvents, and integrated biorefineries [13,28]. The extraction of nanomaterials using microwave-assisted pyrolysis, combined with ultrasound pretreatments and hybrid catalytic approaches, demonstrates high potential for efficient extraction while simultaneously degrading pollutants, as shown in references [5,26,32]. When lignocellulosic biomass is effectively pretreated, it can serve as a valuable feedstock in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for both electricity generation and wastewater treatment [88]. Nanotechnology yields three distinct applications in pollutant management: multifunctional nanocomposites serve as pollution removal tools, blended membranes unite biological treatments with nanotechnology, and magnetic nanobiocatalysts provide reusable systems for pollutant degradation [12,58]. The application of microbe-derived enzymes combined with plant-based extracts in green synthetic methods both promotes eco-friendly characteristics and scales up performance [43]. Experts have integrated machine learning (for example, Python 3.7.9 with scikit-learn 0.24.2; XGBoost 1.3.3, Python 3.8.10 with scikit-learn 0.23.2; LIBSVM 3.24 etc.) to enhance the biological reaction pathways of biochar during wastewater treatment [74]. Modern technological applications involving biological and physical treatments demonstrate improved process efficiency. Research on surface modifications with thiol and amine group attachment to lignin nanoparticles has improved the selective pollutant capture capacity of these nanoparticles for Hg(II) and Pb(II) [41]. Flash Nano Precipitation is a sustainable production technique for generating uniformly sized nanoparticles at large-scale operational levels [28]. Bioaugmentation through engineered microbial consortia shows great promise to synergistically enhance pollutant degradation when combined with nanomaterials according to [57]. In Table 8, innovations in functionalization techniques to improve performance are presented. In Figure 3, a framework for the circular bioeconomy for lignocellulosic nanomaterial applications is presented.

6.2. Circular Bioeconomy

Lignocellulosic waste valorization serves sustainability goals through waste conversion into valuable nanomaterials, along with biofuels, as well as bioplastics, while reducing environmental impacts according to [45,61]. Research shows that the execution of closed-loop recycling systems that utilize solvents such as gamma-valerolactone (GVL), as well as all fractions of biomass, leads to improved resource utilization [35]. Integrated biorefineries produce nanomaterials together with bioenergy or biochemicals while minimizing waste to a degree of 70% according to [36,81]. The conversion of agricultural waste into nanomaterials helps achieve zero-waste targets by addressing global waste management issues and simultaneously producing usable products, such as bioethanol and biogas [57,89]. LB extraction for industrial purposes results in improved resource efficiency combined with better environmental sustainability because it decreases industrial-scale waste disposal quantities [90]. In Figure 4, the lifecycle of lignocellulosic biomass, from feedstock to nanomaterial synthesis, applications, and its role in a circular economy, is illustrated.

6.3. Policy and Industry Support

Government incentives play a key role in facilitating the large-scale deployment of sustainable technologies. Lignocellulosic-based innovations are gaining wider acceptance for wastewater treatment when governments implement renewable resource promotion alongside enhanced effluent regulations [15,55]. The commercialization of green nanotechnology requires critical research and development subsidies to accelerate its development process [29]. Technology transfer, together with industrial adoption, requires the strong support of public–private partnerships. Industry–academia partnerships create conditions that increase the manufacturing scale yet maintain sustainability standards [54,87]. The use of renewable materials in wastewater treatment can accelerate global sustainability targets when policy frameworks support their utilization [65]. The convergence of modern green technology advancements with circular bioeconomic models and appropriate policy structures demonstrates great potential to transform bioenergy systems that utilize lignocellulosic materials. Advanced technology solutions address vital environmental problems while enabling the development of large-scale, sustainable industrial practices. Future investigations must establish affordable biomass fractionation procedures to enhance the complete utilization of biomass, advance LB-derived nanomaterials in environmental cleanup, and optimize bio-based plastics through improved manufacturing approaches.

7. Conclusions

This review provides in-depth measurements regarding the ability of nanomaterials made from lignocellulosic biomass to transform ecological wastewater management methods. The development of novel wastewater treatment solutions relies on the exploitation of nanomaterials derived from lignocellulosic biomass as these materials offer large surface areas along with adjustable porosity features and various functional groups, enabling the extraction of heavy metals, dyes, and organic pollutants through adsorption, catalytic effects, and membrane separation. Nanomaterials have gained environmental and scalable qualities through the application of green extraction technology combined with hybrid catalysis systems that adhere to bioeconomy principles and support the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The industrial use of these promising nanomaterials presents significant challenges due to inconsistent feedstock requirements, high production costs, and the need for environmental assessments. The combination of policy assistance with green chemistry advancements and process enhancement will create sustainable economic stability that preserves ecological sustainability. Resource efficiency improvements become achievable through functionalized techniques that integrate with hybrid systems and closed-loop biorefineries, enabling environmental footprint reduction. Lignocellulosic nanomaterials represent a significant advancement in wastewater treatment, offering an effective solution to global pollution issues and facilitating waste transformation toward value creation. The future of material and scalability research in water treatment needs functionalization strategies and full industrial integration to establish sustainable treatment systems at all levels worldwide.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Grant No. KFU252239).

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 17 02426 g001
Figure 1. Process of using nanomaterials in wastewater treatment.
Figure 1. Process of using nanomaterials in wastewater treatment.
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Figure 2. Overview of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in wastewater treatment.
Figure 2. Overview of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in wastewater treatment.
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Figure 3. Circular bioeconomy framework for lignocellulosic nanomaterial applications.
Figure 3. Circular bioeconomy framework for lignocellulosic nanomaterial applications.
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Figure 4. Lifecycle of lignocellulosic biomass to nanomaterials.
Figure 4. Lifecycle of lignocellulosic biomass to nanomaterials.
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Table 1. Types of lignocellulosic biomass-derived nanomaterials and their properties.
Table 1. Types of lignocellulosic biomass-derived nanomaterials and their properties.
Nanomaterial TypeSource BiomassKey PropertiesApplicationsReferences
Cellulose NanocrystalsSugarcane bagasseSurface area: 500 m2/g; tensile strength: 220 GPaHeavy metal adsorption, membranes[29]
Lignin NanoparticlesRice strawThermal stability: >300 °C; functional groups: -OH, -COOHDye removal, catalytic supports[37]
BiocharForestry residuesPorosity: 0.8 cm3/g; adsorption capacity: 806 mg/gOrganic pollutant degradation[11]
Graphene OxideWheat strawElectrical conductivity: 103 S/m; surface charge: −25 mVPhotocatalysis, sensors[36]
Magnetic Fe3O4 NPsCorn stoverSuperparamagnetic; adsorption capacity: 95% Pb(II)Magnetic recovery systems[43]
Table 2. Comparative analysis of pretreatment methods for nanomaterial extraction.
Table 2. Comparative analysis of pretreatment methods for nanomaterial extraction.
MethodEnergy UseYield (%)Environmental ImpactScalabilityReferences
Acid HydrolysisHigh45–60Toxic effluent generationModerate[1]
Enzymatic HydrolysisLow30–40Biodegradable by-productsHigh[28]
PyrolysisVery High50–70CO2 emissionsLow[45]
Microwave-AssistedModerate55–65Reduced solvent useHigh[52]
Gamma-ValerolactoneLow60–75Solvent recyclabilityHigh[35]
Table 3. Comparison of different lignocellulosic-derived nanomaterials.
Table 3. Comparison of different lignocellulosic-derived nanomaterials.
FeaturesCNCLignin NPsBiochar
Feedstock sourcesSugarcane bagasseHardwoodRice husk
Key propertiesHigh crystallinity (220 GPa)Antioxidant and UV-resistantMesoporous (500 m2/g)
Pollutant removal efficiencyPb(II) (96% removal)Methylene blue (806 mg/g)Zn(II) (85% ion exchange)
Table 4. Pollutant removal efficiencies of lignocellulosic nanomaterials.
Table 4. Pollutant removal efficiencies of lignocellulosic nanomaterials.
PollutantSource/IndustryNanomaterialRemoval EfficiencyMechanismReferences
Pb(II)Battery manufacturing, metal platingCarboxylated CNCs1237 mg/gElectrostatic interaction[29]
Methylene BlueTextile dyeingMnO2–lignin nanocomposites806 mg/gChemical adsorption[37]
Cr(VI)Electroplating, leather tanningTEMPO-oxidized cellulose96%Redox reaction[29,71]
TetracyclinePharmaceutical manufacturing, hospitalsCNC–chitosan membranes97%Size exclusion[16]
Cu(II)Mining, metal platingBiochar–ZnO hybrid92%Ion exchange[15]
Table 5. Case studies on the application of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in industrial wastewater treatment.
Table 5. Case studies on the application of lignocellulosic nanomaterials in industrial wastewater treatment.
Source of WasteParameter ImprovedType of LB NanomaterialEfficiency/PerformanceReference(s)
Dye wastewater (methylene blue)Dye concentrationBiochar from rice strawAdsorption capacity: 160.5 mg/g[11]
Oil–water mixtureOil contentNanocellulose-based membranesEffective separation[61]
Heavy metal wastewaterHeavy metal concentrationsSugarcane bagasse-derived nanomaterialsSignificant removal efficiencies[51]
Pharmaceutical wastewater (tetracycline)Tetracycline concentrationCNC-based membranesEffective removal via electrostatic interactions[12]
Industrial wastewaterOverall water qualityLignin-derived materialsAchieved drinkable water quality[52]
Wastewater with microbial contaminationMicrobial contamination and foulingCNF-based membranesRetained bacteria and viruses, antifouling[38,54]
Lead–zinc mineral processing wastewaterOverall water qualityLignocellulosic nanomaterialsAchieved drinkable water quality[52]
Oil spill water (Klang Valley)Oil contentCNC/graphene aerogelsRestored water quality[29]
Wastewater with microbial contaminationMicrobial contaminationBiogenic silver nanoparticles in membranesPotent antibacterial activity against E. coli[16]
Heavy metal wastewater (lead)Lead concentrationSiO2 nanoparticles from rice husk ashEffective lead removal[16]
Arsenic-contaminated groundwaterArsenic concentrationCarbon–silicon nanostructures from rice husk90% removal efficiency[36,81,82]
Heavy metal wastewater (Pb(II), Zn(II), and Cu(II))Heavy metal concentrationsFunctionalized biocharEfficient adsorption, high recycling capacity[52]
Table 6. Economic and environmental metrics of lignocellulosic nanomaterial production.
Table 6. Economic and environmental metrics of lignocellulosic nanomaterial production.
ParameterConventional MaterialsLignocellulosic NanomaterialsImprovement FactorReferences
Production Cost (USD/kg)1–520–504–10×[62]
Carbon Footprint (kg CO2/kg)8–122–43–4× reduction[26]
Adsorption Capacity (mg/g)100–300500–12002–5×[41]
Reusability Cycles3–58–122–3×[52]
Table 7. Geographical variation in lignocellulosic biomass availability and processing feasibility.
Table 7. Geographical variation in lignocellulosic biomass availability and processing feasibility.
RegionDominant LB TypesProcessing CostsFeasibility of Advanced MethodsExamples/NotesReference(s)
North AmericaForestry residues, corn stoverModerateHighWell-established infrastructure; pilot projects in U.S. and Canada[29,51]
EuropeWheat straw, forestry residuesHighModerateAdvanced technology but high labor/energy costs; research in Germany[35]
AsiaRice straw, sugarcane bagasseLow to moderateVariesCost-effective in India and China; limited in less-developed areas[11,51]
AfricaAgricultural residues (e.g., maize and cassava)LowLowLimited access to technology; potential for simpler methods[11]
Latin AmericaSugarcane bagasse, coffee husksModerateModerateAbundant LB but variable infrastructure; applications in Brazil[51]
Table 8. Innovations in functionalization techniques for enhanced performance.
Table 8. Innovations in functionalization techniques for enhanced performance.
Functionalization MethodNanomaterialOutcomeApplicationsCost ConsiderationsReferences
TEMPO OxidationCellulose nanocrystalsIncreased carboxyl groups (-COOH)Selective Cr(VI) adsorptionModerate to high; requires TEMPO catalyst and controlled conditions[29]
MnO2 DepositionLignin NPsHierarchical pore structureDye degradationModerate; involves manganese precursors and deposition methods[37]
Fe3O4 CoatingBiocharMagnetic separation capabilityHeavy metal recoveryLow to moderate; uses inexpensive iron salts and simple processes[43]
Chitosan GraftingCNC membranesAntifouling propertiesOil–water separationModerate; requires chitosan and grafting reagents[16]
DES (deep eutectic solvents) ModificationLignin–carbonEnhanced dispersibilityFlocculationLow; utilizes cheap DES components and simple processing[52]
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Hossain, F.; Hoque, M.E.; Khan, A.A.; Arifuzzaman, M. Lignocellulosic Waste-Derived Nanomaterials: Types and Applications in Wastewater Pollutant Removal. Water 2025, 17, 2426. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162426

AMA Style

Hossain F, Hoque ME, Khan AA, Arifuzzaman M. Lignocellulosic Waste-Derived Nanomaterials: Types and Applications in Wastewater Pollutant Removal. Water. 2025; 17(16):2426. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162426

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hossain, Farabi, Md Enamul Hoque, Aftab Ahmad Khan, and Md Arifuzzaman. 2025. "Lignocellulosic Waste-Derived Nanomaterials: Types and Applications in Wastewater Pollutant Removal" Water 17, no. 16: 2426. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162426

APA Style

Hossain, F., Hoque, M. E., Khan, A. A., & Arifuzzaman, M. (2025). Lignocellulosic Waste-Derived Nanomaterials: Types and Applications in Wastewater Pollutant Removal. Water, 17(16), 2426. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162426

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