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Article

Microbiome and Chemistry Insights into Two Oligotrophic Karst Water Springs in Slovenia from 2016 and 2023 Perspectives

by
Mojca Likar
1,
Marko Blagojevič
1,
Maša Ošlak
2,
Matjaž Mikoš
1,
Zala Prevoršek
3,
Ladislav Holko
4,
Dragana Ribič
2,
Blaž Likozar
2,
Uroš Novak
2,
Boštjan Murovec
5,
Sabina Kolbl Repinc
1,2 and
Blaž Stres
1,2,3,*
1
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Jamova Cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
D13 Department of Catalysis and Chemical Reaction Engineering, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova Ulica 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
3
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva Ulica 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
4
Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 841 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
5
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška Cesta 25, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(16), 2402; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162402
Submission received: 5 July 2025 / Revised: 8 August 2025 / Accepted: 12 August 2025 / Published: 14 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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Abstract

Groundwater, a critical source of drinking water, plays an essential role in global biogeochemical cycles, yet its microbial ecosystems remain insufficiently characterized, particularly in pristine karst aquifers. This study conducted high-resolution profiling of microbial communities and environmental parameters in two representative alpine karst aquifers in Slovenia: Idrijska Bela and Krajcarca. Monthly groundwater samples from the Krajcarca spring and Idrijska Bela borehole over a 14-month period were analyzed using whole-metagenome sequencing (WMS), UV-Vis spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and isotopic analysis. The results revealed stable hydrochemical conditions with clear spatial differences driven by bedrock composition and groundwater residence time. Bacterial communities displayed strong correlations with hydrochemical parameters, while archaeal communities exhibited temporal stability. Functional gene profiles mirrored bacterial patterns, emphasizing the influence of environmental gradients on metabolic potential. No significant temporal changes were detected across two sampling campaigns (2016–2023), highlighting the resilience of these aquifers. This work establishes a valuable baseline for understanding pristine groundwater microbiomes and informs future monitoring and water quality management strategies.
Keywords: pristine karst aquifers; groundwater microbiome; whole-metagenome sequencing; microbial diversity; functional gene profiles; hydrogeochemistry; carbonate weathering; drinking water quality; ecological resilience; sustainable groundwater management pristine karst aquifers; groundwater microbiome; whole-metagenome sequencing; microbial diversity; functional gene profiles; hydrogeochemistry; carbonate weathering; drinking water quality; ecological resilience; sustainable groundwater management
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MDPI and ACS Style

Likar, M.; Blagojevič, M.; Ošlak, M.; Mikoš, M.; Prevoršek, Z.; Holko, L.; Ribič, D.; Likozar, B.; Novak, U.; Murovec, B.; et al. Microbiome and Chemistry Insights into Two Oligotrophic Karst Water Springs in Slovenia from 2016 and 2023 Perspectives. Water 2025, 17, 2402. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162402

AMA Style

Likar M, Blagojevič M, Ošlak M, Mikoš M, Prevoršek Z, Holko L, Ribič D, Likozar B, Novak U, Murovec B, et al. Microbiome and Chemistry Insights into Two Oligotrophic Karst Water Springs in Slovenia from 2016 and 2023 Perspectives. Water. 2025; 17(16):2402. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162402

Chicago/Turabian Style

Likar, Mojca, Marko Blagojevič, Maša Ošlak, Matjaž Mikoš, Zala Prevoršek, Ladislav Holko, Dragana Ribič, Blaž Likozar, Uroš Novak, Boštjan Murovec, and et al. 2025. "Microbiome and Chemistry Insights into Two Oligotrophic Karst Water Springs in Slovenia from 2016 and 2023 Perspectives" Water 17, no. 16: 2402. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162402

APA Style

Likar, M., Blagojevič, M., Ošlak, M., Mikoš, M., Prevoršek, Z., Holko, L., Ribič, D., Likozar, B., Novak, U., Murovec, B., Kolbl Repinc, S., & Stres, B. (2025). Microbiome and Chemistry Insights into Two Oligotrophic Karst Water Springs in Slovenia from 2016 and 2023 Perspectives. Water, 17(16), 2402. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162402

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