The Multiple Challenges Faced by Coastal and Marine Governance

1. Introduction

Coastal and marine areas are only partially integrated into governance across different geographical scales, with persistent fragmentation and sectoral approaches remaining common challenges [1]. While integrated management frameworks—such as integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and marine spatial planning (MSP)—are widely promoted to address these issues, their implementation often struggles with institutional inertia, conflicting mandates, and limited cross-sectoral coordination, resulting in slow or incomplete integration, especially at the interface of land and sea and across administrative levels [2]. Case studies from several regions around the world reveal that planning tools and governance mechanisms frequently remain siloed, focusing on compliance with sector-specific regulations rather than fostering holistic, ecosystem-based management [3].

Efforts to align governance vertically (from local to national), horizontally (across sectors), and programmatically (from policy to implementation) are often hampered by misaligned objectives and resource constraints [4]. Additionally, the integration of traditional and local knowledge into governance processes remains limited, though participatory and deliberative approaches show promise for more inclusive and adaptive management [5,6]. Overall, while progress has been made in recognizing the need for integrated approaches, significant barriers—such as institutional complexity, lack of technical capacity, and entrenched policy frameworks—continue to impede the full integration of coastal and marine areas into governance at all levels [1,4,7].

On the other hand, the inclusion of bottom-up approaches in coastal and marine governance has gained recognition for its potential to enhance sustainability, legitimacy, and adaptability; however, its integration remains uneven and faces significant challenges. Bottom-up strategies—such as empowering local communities, participatory planning, and community-based management—can provide valuable local knowledge, foster stewardship, and improve compliance with regulations [8]. Successful examples, such as the Algoa Bay Project in South Africa, demonstrate that combining bottom-up engagement with top-down authority can identify practical pathways for integrating local knowledge into marine spatial planning, increase transparency, and enhance access to information [6].

However, in many cases, top-down approaches still dominate, with bottom-up participation often limited to consultation rather than genuine power-sharing, as seen in several designations of marine protected areas [9,10]. Comparative studies in the Global South reveal that while local collective action can address certain challenges, external drivers, such as market forces and policy constraints, often limit the effectiveness of bottom-up initiatives, underscoring the need for flexible, multi-level governance that aligns local and national priorities [11,12]. Case studies also demonstrate that empowering communities necessitates sustained engagement, long-term capacity building, and acknowledgment of traditional rights [6,8]. Ultimately, the most effective governance models combine bottom-up and top-down approaches, tailoring participation to local contexts and ensuring that community voices are not only heard, but also have a real influence over decision-making [8,12,13].

2. Main Contributions of the Special Issue

The nine papers in this Special Issue offer a diverse, yet interconnected, set of contributions to the field of coastal and marine governance, spanning case studies, methodological advances, and critical reviews. While they differ in geographical focus—from local case studies in China (Contributions 1 and 6), Cuba (Contribution 4), Brazil, Panama, and Portugal (Contribution 8), and Italy (Contribution 7) to global assessments (Contributions 2, 5 and 9)—and in disciplinary approach, they converge around key themes such as the urgent need to improve governance structures, integrate technological innovation, and facilitate participatory mechanisms. Common concerns include the fragmentation of institutional frameworks, the low enforcement of legal instruments, and the socio-ecological impacts of coastal transformation. Despite methodological variation—from geospatial analysis to qualitative fieldwork and legal critique—the papers collectively advocate for more inclusive, data-informed, and adaptive approaches to address the complex challenges facing coastal and marine systems today.

Reviewing this set of papers reveals that they employ a diverse range of research types. Five articles use case studies (Contributions 1, 4, 6, 7, and 8), three analyze methodological or technological development papers (Contributions 1, 3, and 9), one presents an international legal review (Contribution 2), and three developed comprehensive reviews (Contributions 5, 8, and 9). Together, these contributions reflect a balanced integration of empirical investigation, theoretical synthesis, and applied innovation, advancing our understanding of coastal and marine governance.

The papers in this Special Issue encompass a broad geographical scope, with case studies and analyses spanning Asia (China), Europe (Italy and Portugal), and the Americas (Brazil, Panama, and Cuba), in addition to global assessments. Several papers adopt a global or multi-regional lens—particularly those on marine pollution monitoring, marine protected areas, legal frameworks, and nature-based solutions—thereby offering both localized insights and internationally relevant perspectives.

The authors employed a range of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, including field surveys and stakeholder interviews (e.g., Contribution 4), document analysis (e.g., Contribution 8), and spatial planning reviews (e.g., Contribution 7). Several techniques are utilized, such as machine learning algorithms (e.g., Contribution 3), social media analysis (e.g., Contribution 1), geospatial techniques (e.g., Contribution 5), and doctrinal legal analysis (e.g., Contribution 2), to examine governance frameworks, environmental monitoring, and spatial prioritization at both national and global scales.

The papers collectively highlight critical governance challenges across scales, including institutional fragmentation, limited stakeholder inclusion, weak enforcement of international legal instruments, and insufficient integration between land and sea governance. Several studies emphasize the importance of participatory and adaptive governance models, including community engagement, co-management, digital platforms, and spatial planning, as essential pathways to strengthen coastal and marine policy implementation and enhance environmental and social resilience.

The studies reveal that coastal and marine areas are undergoing significant transformation due to urbanization, industrialization, port development, climate change, and pollution, with consequent impacts on ecological integrity, traditional livelihoods, and spatial dynamics (e.g., Contributions 1, 6, and 7). While several papers emphasize the degradation of coastal ecosystems and the fragmentation of marine governance, others propose integrated management approaches—such as marine protected areas, nature-based solutions, and marine spatial planning (e.g., Contributions 5, 7 and 8)—to support more sustainable and inclusive stewardship of coastal and marine environments.

In summary, the papers collectively recommend strengthening multi-level governance frameworks through improved legal instruments, enhanced stakeholder participation, integrated data, and spatial planning, with a particular emphasis on the role of innovative tools such as remote sensing, naval surveillance, and social media platforms. Future directions call for advancing interdisciplinary and cross-jurisdictional collaboration, embedding nature-based and community-led approaches in policy design, and scaling up scientifically grounded marine protection efforts to meet global biodiversity and sustainability targets.

3. Urgent Challenges

The challenges facing coastal and marine areas are numerous, with different priorities according to the analytical perspective. Nevertheless, global economic and political processes impact some communities and ecosystems more intensely than others. The hope sparked by the United Nations Convention on Environment and Development—UNCED, in 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, with Agenda 21 and its Chapter 17, barely exists after 30 years. The integrated coastal zone management framework, launched internationally at this convention, was almost forgotten by the end of the first decade of the new century. Instead of ICZM, marine spatial planning has taken the lead as the preferred management tool for marine areas, frequently disconnecting coastal areas from decision-making [14].

However, coastal and marine governance extends beyond integrated management approaches. Governance implies multi-sectoral approaches, multi-level decision-making, but mainly real public participation. The contributions included in this Special Issue highlight most of these concerns, with a blend of social, legal, environmental, economic, and technological perspectives. As stated earlier, the challenges to coastal and marine governance are numerous, but we, as editors of this Special Issue, would like to highlight the eight most pressing issues.

3.1. Institutional Fragmentation

Coastal and marine areas require new institutional frameworks that extend beyond collective bodies of already-established institutions. The governance of coastal and marine areas should be led by a single body with sufficient authority to encompass and integrate three diverse perspectives: environmental, social, and economic. Coastal and marine areas should be recognized as a governance unit, which could be called Maremtory, as a semantic evolution of the coastal and marine territory [15].

3.2. Legal Enforcement

Policy and regulatory landscapes in coastal and marine areas are complex, and sometimes, could be even inadequate [16]. However, the main flaws in regulations include the enforcement of the many laws and resolutions. One reason for low levels of enforcement is that regulations have been created with minimal participation from local communities, imposed on them rather than meeting their needs. A new approach to coastal and marine governance should incorporate innovative methods for establishing agreements that reflect the interests and desires of local communities, rather than those of multinational powers.

3.3. Bottom-Up Methodologies

Decision-making has historically been a top-down process. From kingdoms to republics, power has been centralized by a select few individuals who decide the fate of the majority. Nevertheless, the social achievements of the twentieth century enabled large consultation processes, reinforced by current social technologies. The new challenge is implementing new governance methodologies that integrate the needs of the majority and converting them into decisions for the general benefit.

3.4. Urbanization and Traditions

Urban areas have been the primary focus of decision-making in coastal regions, due to their significant social and economic importance in quantitative terms. As a consequence, rural and natural areas have been relegated to secondary status, resulting in several environmental and cultural impacts caused by urbanization. The challenge for coastal governance turns around the best way to conserve rich traditional heritage without indiscriminately prejudicing new developments.

3.5. Limited Stakeholder Participation and Social Inclusion

Sometimes, different governance processes exclude the participation of local coastal communities, Indigenous peoples, women, and young people from decision-making, undermining the legitimacy of coastal and marine policies and reducing compliance with regulations. Participatory governance and citizen science are essential for promoting environmental justice and ensuring that management strategies align with local needs and knowledge [17].

3.6. Insufficient Scientific Data and Monitoring

A lack of up-to-date, site-specific data on biodiversity, pollution, erosion, sea-level rise, and ecosystem services hinders evidence-based policymaking. Without robust indicators and continuous monitoring, it becomes extremely difficult to assess risks accurately or adapt management to changing environmental conditions [18].

3.7. Conflicts Between Economic Interests and Conservation Goals

Coastal zones are often sites of competing interests, including tourism, fisheries, urban development, oil and gas extraction, and conservation. These conflicting uses often prioritize short-term economic gain over long-term sustainability, resulting in habitat degradation, resource overexploitation, and social inequities. Balancing these pressures requires transparent, multi-stakeholder governance frameworks.

3.8. Climate Change and Disaster Risk Vulnerability

Rising sea levels, ocean acidification, saline intrusion, an increase in the intensity and frequency of storms, and coastal erosion intensify existing vulnerabilities [19]. Many local governance systems are reactive rather than proactive, lacking adaptive management mechanisms to prepare for future impacts. Integrating climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction into governance is urgent, particularly in small island developing states and low-lying coastal areas [20].