Stormwater Pollution of Non-Urban Areas—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Which substances are relevant in different sectors?
- What are the concentration ranges of these substances?
- Which sampling methods are commonly employed for measurement?
- Can specific factors affecting pollution be identified?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Literature Search and First Evaluation
2.2. Working with the Values
- 25th and 75th percentile: [28]
3. Results
3.1. The Compiled Data
3.2. Geographical and Temporal Distribution
3.3. Sampling Methods
- Sampling of the liquid phase
- Sampling of the solid phase
3.4. Land Uses
- Industry: not specified; light industry; equipment storage; smelting (various); mixed
- Commercial: commercial; mixed with residential
- Railway: bridge/siding/railroad; platform/station; stabling yard/loading; cleaning
- Port: port surfaces; port basin
- Waste disposal: storage; composting; car park; road
- Agriculture: drainage ditch; intensively grazed pastures; outfalls draining mixed agricultural areas; biogas plants
- Livestock farming: main concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO) drainage; secondary CAFO drainage; yard areas
3.5. Pollution Parameters
3.5.1. Parameter Groups
- Group I—metals
- Group II—solids, biodegradable organic matter, nutrients and macro-pollutants
- Group III—organic (micro-)pollutants
3.5.2. Coliform Bacteria
3.6. Measurement Ranges
4. Discussion
4.1. Origin of the Loads
4.2. PAH and PFAA
4.3. Comparison with Environmental Quality Standards
4.3.1. Threshold Values of the European Commission’s Water Framework Directive (WFD)
4.3.2. Coliform Bacteria
4.4. Stormwater Treatment
4.5. Differences in Sampling Methods and Presentation of Results
4.6. Surface Loads
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
TSS | Total suspended solids |
TS | Total solids |
COD | Chemical oxygen demand |
TKN | Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen |
TN | Total nitrogen |
TP | Total phosphorus |
BOD | Biochemical oxygen demand |
TOC | Total organic carbon |
DOC | Dissolved organic carbon |
IC | Inorganic carbon |
OP | Orthophosphate |
P | Phosphate |
PAH | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon |
PFAA | Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances |
AOX | Adsorbable organic halogen |
BTX | Benzene, Toluene, Xylene |
PCB | Polychlorinated biphenyls |
Appendix A
Appendix A.1. Metals in Liquid Phase
Pollution Parameter | Not Specified | Light | Storage of Equipment |
---|---|---|---|
Ni | 0.63 [1] | ||
0.00195–0.0038 [26] n = 2 | |||
Cu | 0.13–1.01 [1] n = 3 | 0.1 [30] | |
0.31 [22] | |||
0.008 [6] | |||
0.109–0.018 [26] n = 2 | |||
0.3–3.33 [13] n = 29 | |||
Zn | 0.51–4.96 [1] n = 3 | 0.24 [3] | 0.4 [30] |
3.5 [22] | |||
0.25–0.445 [26] n = 2 | |||
0.025–0.11 [34] n = 4 | |||
0.36–0.81 [13] n = 13 | |||
Cd | 0.00026–0.000355 [26] n = 2 | ||
As | 0.00092–0.00108 [26] n = 2 | ||
Pb | 0.06–4.48 [1] n = 3 | 0.1 [30] | |
0.04–0.5 [6] n = 2 | |||
0.0045–0.0045 [26] n = 2 | |||
0.31–0.48 [13] n = 13 | |||
Cr | 0.6–3.6 [6] n = 2 | ||
0.0024–0.0064 [26] n = 2 | |||
V | 0.0028–0.00665 [26] n = 2 | ||
Fe | 7.49–25.5 [1] n = 2 | 6.8 [30] | |
4.27 [22] | |||
0.44–1.6 [34] n = 4 | |||
0.5–16.3 [13] n = 29 | |||
Mn | 0.06–0.14 [34] n = 2 | ||
Al | 3.44–10.1 [1] n = 2 | 4.7 [30] | |
0.02–1.3 [34] n = 4 | |||
0.5–11.6 [13] n = 29 | |||
Co | 0.00064–0.00093 [26] n = 2 | ||
Ba | 0.057–0.089 [26] n = 2 | ||
0.01–0.04 [34] n = 3 | |||
Mg | 2.2–157.68 [13] n = 29 |
Pollution Parameter | Commercial | Mixed with Residential |
---|---|---|
Zn | 0.08 [3] | 0.33 [22] |
Fe | 1.56 [22] |
Pollution Parameter | Highway |
---|---|
Ni | <0.02 [4] |
0.0055–0.02 [25] n = 8 | |
Cu | 0.05 [4] |
0.0055–0.14 [25] n = 9 | |
Zn | 0.16 [4] |
0.063–19.1 [25] n = 26 | |
Cd | <0.001 [4] |
0.0094–0.3506 [25] n = 24 | |
As | 0.0007–0.0116 [25] n = 3 |
Pb | <0.01 [4] |
0.00564–1.86 [25] n = 24 | |
Cr | <0.01 [4] |
0.00056–0.0166 [25] n = 13 | |
Fe | 0.334–89 [25] n = 7 |
Al | 0.15–4.9 [25] n = 4 |
Pollution Parameter | Bridge/Siding/ Railroad | Platform/Station | Stabling Yard/ Loading |
---|---|---|---|
Cu | 0.025–0.27 [33] | 0.0463 [33] | 0.025–0.092 [33] |
Zn | 0.95 [33] | 0.023–0.18 [33] | |
Cd | 0.000015–0.0031 [33] | 0.0013 [33] | <0.0001 [33] |
Pb | 0.002–0.063 [33] | 0.043 [33] | 0.0093–0.016 [33] |
Cr | 0.0173 [33] | 0.0029–0.0053 [33] |
Pollution Parameter | Port Surfaces |
---|---|
Cu | 0.0039 [24] |
Zn | 0.019 [24] |
Pb | 0.0014 [24] |
Al | 0.58 [24] |
Pollution Parameter | Airport |
---|---|
Ni | 0.42–<3.0 [10] n = 17 |
2.0–6.5 [18] n = 4 | |
Cu | 2.27–23.2 [10] n = 21 |
2.9–20.8 [18] n = 4 | |
Zn | 13.8–61.5 [10] n = 17 |
11–101 [18] n = 4 | |
Cd | 0.03–<0.2 [10] n = 17 |
0.034–0.056 [18] n = 4 | |
Pb | 0.35–<1.0 [10] n = 17 |
0.28–1.1 [18] n = 4 | |
Cr | 0.21–<5.0 [10] n = 17 |
0.61–2.1 [18] n = 4 | |
Fe | 0.01–0.34 mg/L [10] n = 20 |
Co | 0.14–1.7 [10] n = 17 |
Mn | 4.85–31.7 [10] n = 20 |
As | 0.19–<1 [10] n = 17 |
0.92–9.5 [18] n = 4 | |
Mo | 0.34–1.10 [10] n = 5 |
Al | <10–264 [10] n = 20 |
Sb | 0.20–0.79 [10] n = 14 |
Ca | 1.79–6.36 mg/L [10] n = 20 |
K | 0.66–2.12 mg/L [10] n = 20 |
Mg | 0.11–0.37 mg/L [10] n = 20 |
Na | 0.35–2.24 mg/L [10] n = 20 |
Ba | 1.78–7.92 [10] n = 17 |
Sr | 3.76–6.08 [10] n = 2 |
Pollution Parameter | Storage (Various, n = 4) | Composting (n = 3) | Car Park | Road (n = 4) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ni | 0.00325–0.0098 [29] | 0.00885–0.0614 [29] | 0.008 [29] | 0.0043–0.008 [29] |
Cu | 0.39–2.74 [29] | 0.43–2.34 [29] | 0.45 [29] | 0.24–0.55 [29] |
Zn | 0.25–0.51 [29] | 0.28–0.98 [29] | 0.61 [29] | 0.14–0.28 [29] |
Cd | <0.0002–0.0006 [29] | 0.0003–0.0021 [29] | 0.0004 [29] | 0.0001–0.00025 [29] |
Pb | 0.0015–0.0105 [29] | 0.00425–0.012 [29] | 0.008 [29] | 0.0014–0.006 [29] |
Cr | 0.0013–0.00905 [29] | 0.0024–0.0055 [29] | 0.0027 [29] | 0.0017–0.0020 [29] |
Fe | 0.11–0.29 [29] | 0.39–2.1 [29] | 0.24 [29] | 0.19–0.82 [29] |
Ca | 22–492 [29] | 134–2620 [29] | 94 [29] | 40–145 [29] |
Mn | 0.04–0.16 [29] | 0.14–0.94 [29] | 0.03 [29] | 0.03–0.11 [29] |
Co | 0.00038–0.0024 [29] | 0.0013–0.0087 [29] | 0.0004 [29] | 0.0008–0.0019 [29] |
Hg | <0.0006–0.003 [29] | <0.0006 [29] | <0.0006 [29] | <0.0006 [29] |
Appendix A.2. Metals in Solid Phase
Pollution Parameter | Not Specified | Smelting (Various) | Mixed |
---|---|---|---|
Ni | 12 [14] | 54–364 [15] n = 3 | 181 [14] |
246 [15] | |||
Cu | 217 [14] | 39–7071 [15] n = 9 | 1034 [14] |
193 [15] | |||
Zn | 892 [14] | 280–7366 [15] n = 10 | 1261 [14] |
2982 [15] | |||
Cd | 4.2 [14] | 2.1–138 [15] n = 9 | 1.9 [14] |
2.1 [15] | |||
As | 16 [15] | 9.8–1780 [15] n = 5 | 21 [14] |
Pb | 87 [14] | 220–13,561 [15] n = 10 | 1418 [14] |
221 [15] | |||
Cr | 160–596 [15] n = 3 | 468 [14] | |
Li | 17 [14] | ||
V | 43 [14] | ||
Mo | 16 [14] | ||
Sn | 80 [14] | ||
Mn | 660 [14] | ||
Co | 2.6 [14] | 17 [14] | |
Hg | 0.21 [15] | 0.25–17.0 [15] n = 3 |
Pollution Parameter | Bridge/ Siding/Railroad (n = 2) | Stabling Yard/Loading (n = 2) | Platform/Station | Cleaning (n = 2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Co | 8–9 [7] | 3 [7] | 6–14 [7] | 5–6 [7] |
Ni | 14–52 [19] | |||
42.97–407.16 [9] n = 22 | ||||
Cu | 161–191 [7] | 33–37 [7] | 326–480 [7] | 1.3–1.9 [7] |
25–52.75 [12] | 27–107 [19] | |||
36.45–884.13 [9] n = 22 | ||||
Zn | 1223–1264 [7] | 206–228 [7] | 897–1438 [7] | 357–563 [7] |
75–130 [19] | ||||
19.64–188.59 [9] n = 22 | ||||
80 [27] | ||||
As | 9.52–34.13 [9] n = 16 | |||
Cd | 5.1–5.4 [7] | 0.8–7.4 [7] | 1.3–2.5 [7] | 1.3–1.9 [7] |
<0.7 [19] | ||||
1.2 [27] | ||||
Mo | 2 [7] | 4–8 [7] | 1 [7] | |
Pb | 448–494 [7] | 75–84 [7] | 177–193 [7] | 134–204 [7] |
20–153 [19] | ||||
13.08–33.42 [9] n = 6 | ||||
20 [27] | ||||
Cr | 58–67 [7] | 11–14 [7] | 62–208 [7] | 23–33 [7] |
15–70 [19] | ||||
54.41–467.88 [9] n = 23 | ||||
Mn | 208.05–2435.93 [9] n = 24 | |||
Fe | 39,700–44,800 [7] | 11,900–14,600 [7] | 59,700–112,900 [7] | 24,900–34,300 [7] |
31,215.31–276,754.34 [9] n = 24 | ||||
Hg | 0.573–0.969 [7] | 0.046–0.066 [7] | 0.144–0.165 [7] | 0.678–0.757 [7] |
0.05–0.17 [12] |
Pollution Parameter | Port Surfaces | Port Basin |
---|---|---|
Li | 21.9 [5] | 58.7 [5] |
V | 58.2 [5] | 83.5 [5] |
Co | 11.6 [5] | 11.4 [5] |
Ni | 66.4 [5] | 25.8 [5] |
Cu | 370 [5] | 321 [5] |
Zn | 1343 [5] | 322 [5] |
As | 22.6 [5] | 12.6 [5] |
Cd | 2.07 [5] | 0.46 [5] |
Sn | 23.2 [5] | 8.7 [5] |
Pb | 210 [5] | 67.4 [5] |
Cr | 395 [5] | 71.2 [5] |
Hg | 0.15 [5] | 0.20 [5] |
Sb | 24.0 [5] | 1.7 [5] |
Appendix A.3. Solids, Biodegradable Organic Matter, Nutrients and Macropollutants in Liquid Phase
Pollution Parameter | Not Specified | Light | Mixed |
---|---|---|---|
TSS | 231 [3] | 3.0–91 [3] n = 2 | 495.3–1074.2 [6] n = 2 |
124–376 [1] n = 3 | 428.2 [30] | ||
8365 [20] | 298.11 [22] | ||
2.75–15 [34] n = 4 | |||
39.81–1109.21 [13] n = 29 | |||
46 [28] | |||
TS | 1032.6–3392.8 [6] n = 2 | ||
COD | 80.7–271 [1] n = 3 | 117 [3] | 1243.8–3161.5 [6] n = 2 |
57.8–673.86 [13] n = 29 | 208.8 [30] | ||
221.45 [22] | |||
TOC | 31.4–50.1 [1] n = 2 | ||
NH4+-N | 0.25 [3] | 0.58 [3] | 4.27 [22] |
0.0518 [20] | 0.3106 [30] | ||
0.28–0.88 [13] n = 29 | |||
NO2−-N | 0.0021 [20] | 0.009 [3] | |
NO2−-N + NO3−-N | 0.92–36.75 [13] n = 29 | ||
PO43−-P | 0.101 [21] | 0.08 [3] | |
0.022 [20] | |||
0.0538 [28] | |||
Cl− | 23.43 [21] | ||
NO3−-N | 0.46 [3] | 1.2 [3] | |
15.3 [21] | |||
0.269 [1] | |||
0.018 [20] | |||
0.136 [28] | |||
TP | 0.27 [3] | 0.13–0.59 [3] n = 2 | 0.3–1.3 [6] n = 2 |
0.055–0.19 [34] n = 4 | 2.12 [22] | ||
0.29 [28] | |||
P | 0.45 [1] | ||
TKN | 2.5 [1] | 291.8 [6] | |
0.475 [28] | |||
TN | 0.95–5.475 [34] n = 4 | 8.98 [22] | |
1.1 [28] | |||
BOD5 | 165 [1] | 42.6 [3] | 23.2 [30] |
6.04–83.52 [13] n = 29 |
Pollution Parameter | Commercial | Mixed with Residential |
---|---|---|
TSS | 167 [3] | 367.19 [22] |
5119 [21] | ||
32 [28] | ||
COD | 225 [3] | 302.81 [22] |
NH4+-N | 0.019 [20] | 5.52 [22] |
0.71 [3] | ||
NO2−-N | 0.006 [3] | |
0.008 [20] | ||
PO43−-P | 0.011 [20] | |
0.04 [21] | ||
0.11 [3] | ||
0.0538 [28] | ||
NO3−-N | 0.003 [20] | |
11.12 [21] | ||
0.93 [3] | ||
0.0678 [28] | ||
TP | 0.69 [3] | 3.17 [22] |
0.29 [28] | ||
TKN | 0.75 [28] | |
TN | 1.05 [28] | 16.69 [22] |
BOD5 | 81.1 [3] |
Pollution Parameter | Highway |
---|---|
COD | 9–284 [4] n = 5 |
DOC | 1.1–42.4 [4] n = 5 |
IC | 10.9–33.4 [4] n = 5 |
NH4+-N | 0.3–1.0 [4] n = 3 |
NO2−-N | 0.2–66.3 [4] n = 3 |
PO43−-P | 0.09–1.5 [4] n = 4 |
Cl− | 32.75–82.52 [4] n = 4 |
BOD5 | <1.0–4.3 [4] n = 3 |
Pollution Parameter | Airport |
---|---|
TOC | 10.5–57 [18] n = 4 |
NH4+-N | 0.30–38.16 [10] n = 9 |
NO2−-N | 0.0019–0.54 [10] n = 9 |
Cl− | 0.82–0.85 [10] n = 2 |
NO3−-N | 0.029–0.346 [10] n = 8 |
SO42− | 1.42–2.70 [10] n = 5 |
TP | 0.018–0.27 [18] n = 4 |
TN | 0.43–1.4 [18] n = 4 |
Pollution Parameter | Storage (n = 4) | Composting (n = 3) | Car Park | Road (n = 4) |
---|---|---|---|---|
COD | 64–310 [29] | 400–600 [29] | 180 [29] | 65–370 [29] |
TOC | 57–270 [29] | 300–410 [29] | 68 [29] | 42–106 [29] |
NH4+-N | 0.29–0.62 [29] | 0.27–18.90 [29] | 0.54 [29] | 0.039–0.21 [29] |
TP | 1.05–5.35 [29] | 8.85–32.00 [29] | 7.05 [29] | 0.43–7.15 [29] |
TN | 8–21 [29] | 48–150 [29] | 34 [29] | 3–9 [29] |
BOD7 | 12–27 [29] | 85–260 [29] | 38 [29] | 10–28 [29] |
Cl− | 31–721 [29] | 272–3762 [29] | 51 [29] | 16–331 [29] |
Pollution Parameter | Drainage Ditch | Intensively Grazed Pastures | Outfalls Draining Mixed Agricultural Areas |
---|---|---|---|
TSS | 396–1080 [23] n = 3 | 1134 [23] | 45–658 [23] n = 5 |
TP | 1.2–2.0 [23] n = 3 | 0.7 [23] | 0.3–0.9 [23] n = 5 |
Pollution Parameter | Main CAFO * Drainage n = 5 | Secundary CAFO * Drainage n = 2 | Yard Areas |
---|---|---|---|
TSS | 5.6–23.9 [16] | 3.2–4.2 [16] | |
COD | 45.3–1990 [31] n = 4 | ||
TOC | 10.9–36.1 [16] | 16.2–17.5 [16] | |
NH4+-N | 0.1–10.5 [16] | 0.1–0.4 [16] | 2.5–55.2 [31] n = 2 |
PO43−-P | 1.2–9.8 [31] n = 2 | ||
NO3−-N | 2.9–7.9 [16] | 0.3–1.3 [16] | 0.22–2.0 [31] n = 2 |
TP | 0.2–2.8 [16] | 0.3–0.4 [16] | 1.9–13.6 [31] n = 2 |
OP | 0.1–1.8 [16] | 0.3 [16] | |
TN | 3.9–15.7 [16] | 0.5–1.8 [16] | 6.6–73 [31] n = 2 |
BOD5 | 1.7–18.7 [16] | 1.4–3.2 [16] | 45.5–1110 [31] n = 2 |
Appendix A.4. Solids, Biodegradable Organic Matter, Nutrients and Macropollutants as Surface Loads
Appendix A.5. Organic (Micro-) Pollutants in Liquid Phase
Pollution Parameter | Not Specified | Light | Mixed |
---|---|---|---|
Oil and Grease | 11.3–16.6 [1] n = 2 | 4.47 [3] | 5.0 [30] |
1.7–20.1 [13] n = 29 | |||
PFAA (PFOS) | 8.7–156.0 ng/L [11] |
Pollution Parameter | Commercial |
---|---|
Oil and Grease | 3.66 [3] |
Appendix A.6. Organic (Micro-) Pollutants in Solid Phase
Pollution Parameter | Not Specified |
---|---|
PAHs | 0.236–2.420 [17] n = 7 |
SOs | 0.164–1.730 [17] n = 6 |
APs | 0.192–7.450 [17] n = 7 |
Pollution Parameter | Bridge/Siding/ Railroad | Platform/Station | Stabling Yard/Loading | Cleaning |
---|---|---|---|---|
PAH | 58.985–59.508 [7] n = 2 | 2.3–20.5 [19] n = 3 | 17.948–41.026 [7] n = 2 | 7.986–15.376 [7] n = 2 |
41.026–49.670 [7] n = 2 | ||||
PCB | <0.021–0.116 [19] n = 3 | |||
Mineral oils | 831.5–2520.0 [19] n = 3 | |||
Petroleum products | 579.24–809.20 [8] n = 6 | 13.4–134.1 [19] n = 3 |
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Priority Substance | AA-EQS 1 | MAC-EQS 2 |
---|---|---|
Cd 3 | ≤0.00008 | ≤0.00045 |
Pb | 0.0012 | 0.014 |
Hg | - | 0.00007 |
Ni | 0.004 | 0.034 |
PAH | 1.7 × 10−7 | 0.00027 |
PFOS | 6.5 × 10−7 | 0.036 |
Land Use Type | Substance | Number of Values (n) | Exceedance of AA (n) | Exceedance of MAC (n) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Industry | Cd | 2 | 2 | 0 |
Pb | 9 | 9 | 7 | |
Ni | 3 | 1 | 1 | |
PFOS | 2 | 2 | 0 | |
Highway | Cd | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Pb | 2 | 2 | 1 | |
Ni | 2 | 1 | 1 | |
Railway | Cd | 3 | 2 | 2 |
Pb | 5 | 5 | 3 | |
Port | Pb | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Airport | Cd | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Pb | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
Ni | 3 | 2 | 0 | |
PFOS | 2 | 2 | 0 | |
Waste | Cd | 7 | 7 | 2 |
Pb | 7 | 7 | 0 | |
Hg | 1 | - | 1 | |
Ni | 7 | 6 | 1 |
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Potreck, A.; Tränckner, J. Stormwater Pollution of Non-Urban Areas—A Review. Water 2025, 17, 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111704
Potreck A, Tränckner J. Stormwater Pollution of Non-Urban Areas—A Review. Water. 2025; 17(11):1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111704
Chicago/Turabian StylePotreck, Antonia, and Jens Tränckner. 2025. "Stormwater Pollution of Non-Urban Areas—A Review" Water 17, no. 11: 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111704
APA StylePotreck, A., & Tränckner, J. (2025). Stormwater Pollution of Non-Urban Areas—A Review. Water, 17(11), 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111704