Mapping the Social, Economic, and Ecological Impact of Floods in Brisbane
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Case Study
2.2. Impact Assessment
2.2.1. Land-Use Classification
2.2.2. Economic Loss
- D = ;
- A = ;
- p = % of urban building-covered surface in a land-use type.
2.2.3. Ecological Gain
2.2.4. Social Losses
2.3. Analysis of the Relationship between Flood Gains and Losses and the Geographical Factors
3. Results
3.1. Economic, Ecological and Social Impacts
3.1.1. Economic Loss
3.1.2. Ecological Gain
3.1.3. Social Loss
3.2. The Relationship between Flood Impacts and the Geographical Factors
3.2.1. Elevation
3.2.2. Direct Distance to the River
3.2.3. Direct Distance to the Upstream River Source
4. Discussion
- Downstream (above 23,500 m from the upper stream) riverside communities (within 800 m of the river) with low altitudes (below 15 m) are more likely to experience significant flood damage.
- Total economic losses in Brisbane were estimated at $1.96 billion and $1.98 billion in 2011 and 2022, respectively, which were consistent with former reports. Total ecological gains were approximately $251 million in 2011 and $609 million in 2022. Total social losses were $11.4 million and $22.7 million in 2011 and 2022, respectively.
- Flood impacts had a bell-shaped development with elevation. Regions with elevation below 15 m above sea level were most prone to be impacted. Flood impacts exponentially decayed with the distance to the river. Regions within 800 m of the Brisbane River were most prone to be impacted. Flood impacts had a bell-shaped development with distance to the upper stream of the river. Regions above 23,500 m from the upper stream were more prone to be impacted.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. The Summary of Datasets Used in This Study
Data Name | Source |
---|---|
2011 Brisbane flood extent | Brisbane Open Data website https://data.gov.au/dataset/ds-dga-35dc2150-5c72-4427-871f-650336e9151a/details (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
2022 Brisbane flood extent | Brisbane Open Data website https://www.data.brisbane.qld.gov.au/data/dataset/flood_awareness_historic_brisbane_river_and_creek_floods_feb_2022 (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Queensland local government area boundaries | Queensland Spatial Catalogue https://qldspatial.information.qld.gov.au/catalogue/custom/detail.page?fid={3F3DBD69-647B-4833-B0A5-CC43D5E70699} (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Queensland land-use mapping | Department of Environment and Science, 2022 https://qldspatial.information.qld.gov.au/catalogue/custom/detail.page?fid={C3CD23AD-7101-4765-8BED-AFC2C5DF1F5F} (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Estimated resident population by statistical area, level 2, Queensland, 2011 to 2021 | Australian Bureau of Statistics https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Brisbane digital elevation model—25 m | Queensland Spatial Catalogue https://qldspatial.information.qld.gov.au/catalogue/custom/detail.page?fid={337F0DF2-64CD-4E26-AD21-7C63AEC1769E} (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Historic flood heights and floor heights of buildings | Flood Awareness Online https://fam.brisbane.qld.gov.au/?page=Map---Standard (accessed on 21 October 2023) |
Appendix B. The Proportion of Each Land-Use Type to the Total Inundated Area
Appendix C. Estimated Economic Losses
Landuse | Building Coverage Rate | Economic Loss ($) 2011 | Economic Loss ($) 2022 |
Commercial | 27.64% | 390,276,778.63 | 353,902,831.84 |
Residential | 12.92% | 1,075,092,897.38 | 1,328,089,687.34 |
Industrial | 27.02% | 479,879,966.44 | 288,991,955.43 |
Other services | 0.27% | 10,277,924.20 | 13,282,016.26 |
Agriculture | 100% | 59,021.55 | 58,729.56 |
Total economic loss | $1,955,586,588.19 | $1,984,325,220.43 |
Appendix D. Water Depth Validation
Appendix E. Brisbane Monthly Rainfall Distribution (January to March in 2011 and 2022)
References
- Queensland Government. Understanding Floods: Questions & Answers. 2011. Available online: https://www.chiefscientist.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/49801/understanding-floods_full_colour.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Konrad, C.P. Effects of Urban Development on Floods. U.S. Geological Survey–Water Resources. 2003. Available online: https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs07603/pdf/fs07603.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Hammond, M.J.; Chen, A.S.; Djordjević, S.; Butler, D.; Mark, O. Urban flood impact assessment: A state-of-the-art review. Urban Water J. 2015, 12, 14–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garro-Quesada, M.d.M.; Vargas-Leiva, M.; Girot, P.O.; Quesada-Román, A. Climate Risk Analysis Using a High-Resolution Spatial Model in Costa Rica. Climate 2023, 11, 127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quesada-Román, A. Landslides and floods zonation using geomorphological analyses in a dynamic catchment of Costa Rica. Rev. Cartogr. 2021, 102, 125–138. [Google Scholar]
- NSW Government. Climate Change Impacts on Storms and Floods. 2022. Available online: https://www.climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/storms-and-floods (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Coastal Flooding, Climate Change, and Your Health What You Can Do to Prepare. 2017. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/pubs/CoastalFloodingClimateChangeandYourHealth-508.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Hallegatte, S.; Green, C.; Nicholls, R.J.; Corfee-Morlot, J. Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2013, 3, 802–806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vousdoukas, M.I.; Mentaschi, L.; Voukouvalas, E.; Bianchi, A.; Dottori, F.; Feyen, L. Climatic and socioeconomic controls of future coastal flood risk in Europe. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2018, 8, 776–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cea, L.; Costabile, P. Flood risk in urban areas: Modelling, management and adaptation to climate change. A review. Hydrology 2022, 9, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Power, S.B.; Callaghan, J. The frequency of major flooding in coastal southeast Australia has significantly increased since the late 19th century. J. South. Hemisph. Earth Syst. Sci. 2016, 66, 2–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Y.; Manful, D.; Warren, R.; Forstenhäusler, N.; Osborn, T.J.; Price, J.; Jenkins, R.; Wallace, C.; Yamazaki, D. Quantification of impacts between 1.5 and 4 C of global warming on flooding risks in six countries. Clim. Chang. 2022, 170, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Djordjević, S.; Butler, D.; Gourbesville, P.; Mark, O.; Pasche, E. New policies to deal with climate change and other drivers impacting on resilience to flooding in urban areas: The CORFU approach. Environ. Sci. Policy 2011, 14, 864–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haines, P.; Dearnley, C.; Wallace, S.; Ramilo, N.; Rodgers, B.; Filer, B.; Monhartova, P.; Kime, S.; McGuire, S.; Corkill, D.; et al. Technical Evidence Report—Brisbane River Strategic Floodplain Management Plan. 2018. Available online: https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/s/o7L0vJD0Uo5UO4B (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Deloitte Access Economics. The Economic Cost of the Social Impact of Natural Disasters. 2016. Available online: http://australianbusinessroundtable.com.au/assets/documents/Report%20-%20Social%20costs/Report%20-%20The%20economic%20cost%20of%20the%20social%20impact%20of%20natural%20disasters.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- World Meteorological Organization. Environmental Aspects of Integrated Flood Management. 2006. Available online: https://www.floodmanagement.info/publications/policy/ifm_env_aspects/Environmental_Aspects_of_IFM_En.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Peters, D.L.; Caissie, D.; Monk, W.A.; Rood, S.B.; St-Hilaire, A. An ecological perspective on floods in Canada. Can. Water Res. J. 2016, 41, 288–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalischuk, A.R.; Rood, S.B.; Mahoney, J.M. Environmental influences on seedling growth of cottonwood species following a major flood. For. Ecol. Manag. 2001, 144, 75–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Górski, K.; De Leeuw, J.J.; Winter, H.V.; Khoruzhaya, V.; Boldyrev, V.; Vekhov, D.A.; Nagelkerke, L.A.J. The importance of flooded terrestrial habitats for larval fish in a semi- natural large floodplain (Volga, Russian Federation). Inland Waters. 2016, 6, 105–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Australia Government. Australian Disaster Preparedness Framework. 2018. Available online: https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/emergency/files/australian-disaster-preparedness-framework.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Hallegatte, S.; Corfee-Morlot, J. Understanding climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation at city scale: An introduction. Clim. Chang. 2011, 104, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kazama, S.; Sato, A.; Kawagoe, S. Evaluating the cost of flood damage based on changes in extreme rainfall in Japan. Sustain. Sci. 2010, 4, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nafari, R.H.; Ngo, T.; Mendis, P. An assessment of the effectiveness of tree-based models for multi-variate flood damage assessment in Australia. Water 2016, 8, 282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiménez-Jiménez, S.I.; Ojeda-Bustamante, W.; Ontiveros-Capurata, R.E.; Marcial-Pablo, M.D.J. Rapid urban flood damage assessment using high resolution remote sensing data and an object-based approach. Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk 2020, 11, 906–927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pinos, J.; Quesada-Román, A. Flood risk-related research trends in Latin America and the Caribbean. Water 2021, 14, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Zhou, H.; Zhang, H.; Du, G.; Zhou, J. Urban flood risk warning under rapid urbanization. Environ. Res. 2015, 139, 3–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Handayani, W.; Chigbu, U.E.; Rudiarto, I.; Putri, I.H.S. Urbanization and Increasing flood risk in the Northern Coast of Central Java—Indonesia: An assessment towards better land use policy and flood management. Land 2020, 9, 343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van den Honert, R.C.; McAneney, J. The 2011 Brisbane Floods: Causes, Impacts and Implications. Water 2011, 3, 1149–1173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Queensland Reconstruction Authority. The Social, Financial and Economic Costs of the 2022 South East Queensland Rainfall and Flooding Event. 2022. Available online: https://www.qra.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-07/dae_report_-_south_east_queensland_rainfall_and_flooding_event_-_8_june_2022.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Brisbane City Council. Brisbane’s FloodSmart Future Strategy. 2023. Available online: https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/community-and-safety/community-safety/disasters-and-emergencies/be-prepared/flooding-in-brisbane/flood-strategy/brisbanes-floodsmart-future-strategy (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Joint Flood Taskforce. Joint Flood Taskforce Report March 2011. Report Prepared for the Brisbane City Council. 2011. Available online: http://www.floodcommission.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/file/0017/6443/BCC_Attachment_13_-_Joint_Flood_Taskforce_Report_March_2011.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Bureau of Meteorology. Flood Summary for Brisbane River at Brisbane—December 2010 and January 2011. 2011. Available online: http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_reports/brisbane_fact_sheet_2011.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Brisbane City Council. 2022 Brisbane Flood Review. 2022. Available online: https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2022-06/20220623-Brisbane-Flood-Review-at-9-May-2022-tagged.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Queensland Government. South East Queensland Rainfall and Flooding February to March 2022 Review. 2022. Available online: https://www.igem.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/PROTECTED%20SEQ%20Rainfall%20and%20Flooding%20Reviewreduced_0.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Queensland Government. 2021–22 Southern Queensland Floods. 2022. Available online: https://www.qra.qld.gov.au/2021-22-Southern-Queensland-Floods (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Queensland Reconstruction Authority. The State Community, Economic and Environmental Recovery and Reconstruction Plan 2011–2013. 2011. Available online: https://www.qra.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-03/Operation-Queenslander-implementation-plan.PDF (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Hammond, M.; Djordjević, S.; Butler, D.; Chen, A.S. Flood Impact Assessment Literature Review. University of Exeter, United Kingdom, 15 August 2014. Available online: https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10871/21215/Flood%20Impact%20Assessment%20Literature%20Review.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Messner, F.; Evaluating Flood Damages: Guidance and Recommendations on Principles and Methods. Helmholz Unweltforschungszentrum (UFZ). 2007. Available online: https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%253A5602db10-274c-40da-953f-34475ded1755 (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Merz, B.; Kreibich, H.; Schwarze, R.; Thieken, A. Review article “Assessment of economic flood damage”. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2010, 10, 1697–1724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kundzewicz, Z.W.; Kanae, S.; Seneviratne, S.I.; Handmer, J.; Nicholls, N.; Peduzzi, P.; Mechler, R.; Bouwer, L.M.; Arnell, N.; Mach, K.; et al. Flood risk and climate change: Global and regional perspectives. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2014, 59, 1–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Queensland Reconstruction Authority. Economic Assessment Framework of Flood Risk Management Projects. 2021. Available online: https://www.qra.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-05/economic_assessment_framework_of_flood_management_projects_2021_0.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Beutel, A.; Mølhave, T.; Agarwal, P.K. Natural neighbor interpolation based grid DEM construction using a GPU. In Proceedings of the 18th SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, New York, NY, USA, 2–5 November 2010; pp. 172–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sibson, R. Chapter 2 Interpolating Multivariate Data. In A Brief Description of Natural Neighbor Interpolation; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1981; pp. 21–36. [Google Scholar]
- Sannigrahi, S.; Chakraborti, S.; Joshi, P.K.; Keesstra, S.; Sen, S.; Paul, S.K.; Kreuter, U.; Sutton, P.C.; Jha, S.; Dang, K.B. Ecosystem service value assessment of a natural reserve region for strengthening protection and conservation. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 244, 208–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Costanza, R.; d’Arge, R.; De Groot, R.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, S.; O’neill, R.V.; Paruelo, J.; et al. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 1997, 387, 253–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Groot, R.; Brander, L.; Van Der Ploeg, S.; Costanza, R.; Bernard, F.; Braat, L.; Christie, M.; Crossman, N.; Ghermandi, A.; Hein, L.; et al. Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst. Serv. 2012, 1, 50–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costanza, R.; De Groot, R.; Sutton, P.; Van der Ploeg, S.; Anderson, S.J.; Kubiszewski, I.; Farber, S.; Turner, R.K. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2014, 26, 152–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olesen, L.; Löwe, R.; Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K. Flood Damage Assessment: Literature Review and Recommended Procedure. Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Melbourne, Australia. 2017. Available online: https://watersensitivecities.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/IN_PC956_B4-1_Flood_Damage_web.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Quesada-Román, A. Disaster risk assessment of informal settlements in the Global South. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reaney, S.M. Spatial targeting of nature-based solutions for flood risk management within river catchments. J. Flood Risk Manag. 2022, 15, e12803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ikirri, M.; Faik, F.; Echogdali, F.Z.; Antunes, I.M.H.R.; Abioui, M.; Abdelrahman, K.; Fnais, M.S.; Wanaim, A.; Id-Belqas, M.; Boutaleb, S.; et al. Flood hazard index application in arid catchments: Case of the taguenit wadi watershed, Lakhssas, Morocco. Land 2022, 11, 1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liao, K.H.; Le, T.A.; Van Nguyen, K. Urban design principles for flood resilience: Learning from the ecological wisdom of living with floods in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2016, 155, 69–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamel, P.; Tan, L. Blue–green infrastructure for flood and water quality management in Southeast Asia: Evidence and knowledge gaps. Environ Manag. 2022, 69, 699–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Australian Disaster Resilience. Queensland and Brisbane 2010/11 Floods. 2011. Available online: https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/flood-queensland-2010-2011/#:~:text=The%20Insurance%20Council%20of%20Australia%20estimates%20the%202011%20damage%20at%20%242.38%20billion (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Queensland Government. Experimental Estimates of Gross Regional Product. 2008. Available online: https://www.qgso.qld.gov.au/issues/3316/experimental-estimates-gross-regional-product-2005-06.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- McCall, B. Public Health Aspects of the Queensland Floods Dec 2010–Jan 2011. Pathology 2012, 44, S45–S46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Queensland Courts. Inquest into the Deaths Caused by the South-East Queensland Floods of January 2011. 2012. Available online: https://www.courts.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019%252F152362%252Fcif-seq-floods-20120605.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Brisbane City Council. Flood-Ex21 Local Recovery Plan. 2021. Available online: https://www.qra.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/Brisbane%20City%20Council%20-%20Local%20Recovery%20Plan%20-%20Southern%20Queensland%20Floods%202021-22.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Seqwater. January 2011 Flood Event: Report on the Operation of Somerset Dam and Wivenhoe Dam. 2011. Available online: http://www.floodcommission.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/4292/QFCI_Exhibit_24_January_2011_Flood_Event_Report_on_the_Operation_of_Somerset_and_Wivenhoe.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Queensland Government. Review into the 2022 South East Queensland Rainfall and Flood Event. 2022. Available online: https://cabinet.qld.gov.au/documents/2022/Mar/IGEMReviewToR/Review%20into%20the%202022%20South%20East%20Queensland%20Rainfall%20and%20Flood%20event.DOCX (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Statistical Areas Level 2 (SA2). 2021. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/by%20Subject/1270.0.55.001~July%202016~Main%20Features~Statistical%20Area%20Level%202%20(SA2)~10014 (accessed on 21 October 2023).
- Bureau of Meteorology. Climate Statistics for Australian Locations. 2022. Available online: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_040842.shtml (accessed on 21 October 2023).
Current Land-Cover | Land-Cover Classes after Merging |
---|---|
River, lake, reservoir/dam | Open water |
Nature conservation, plantation forests | Forest |
Marsh/wetland, managed resource protection | Wetlands |
Grazing native vegetation | Grass/rangelands |
Dryland agriculture, irrigated agriculture | Agriculture |
Residential and farm infrastructure | Residential |
Commercial services | Commercial |
Manufacturing and industrial | Industrial |
Services except commercial services | Other services |
Other minimal use | Barren land |
Land-Cover Classes | Flood Impact | Flood-Induced Gain or Loss in 2020 $Based on Flood Depth (m) | Description | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.25 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 1 | 1.25 | 1.5 | |||
Residential | Economic loss ($/) | 714 | 1428 | 1530 | 1632 | 1734 | 1836 | Damage caused to dwellings due to external and over-floor inundation. |
Commercial | 200 | 400 | 719 | 1037 | 1356 | 1674 | Damage caused to business premises due to external and over-floor inundation. | |
Industrial | 150 | 300 | 424 | 548 | 671 | 795 | Damage caused to industrial premises due to external and over-floor inundation. | |
Other Services | 200 | 400 | 650 | 900 | 1150 | 1400 | Buildings and facilities that do not have commercial uses but provide a service to the community, including community halls, recreational facilities, parks. | |
Agriculture | 0.34 | Damage caused to livestock, crops, fences, and equipment. | ||||||
Open Water | Ecological gain ($/m2) | 1.82 | Ecosystem service value of inundated rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. | |||||
Forest | 0.78 | Ecosystem service value of inundated nature conservation and plantation forests. | ||||||
Wetlands | 20.37 | Ecosystem service value of inundated marsh and managed resource protection area. | ||||||
Barren Land | 0 | Ecosystem service value of inundated lands that are largely unused but may have ancillary uses. | ||||||
Grass/Rangelands | 0.6 | Ecosystem service value of inundated grassland. | ||||||
Mortality | Social Loss ($) | |||||||
Morbidity |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hou, Y.; Wei, Y.; Wu, S.; Li, J. Mapping the Social, Economic, and Ecological Impact of Floods in Brisbane. Water 2023, 15, 3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213842
Hou Y, Wei Y, Wu S, Li J. Mapping the Social, Economic, and Ecological Impact of Floods in Brisbane. Water. 2023; 15(21):3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213842
Chicago/Turabian StyleHou, Yuewei, Yongping Wei, Shuanglei Wu, and Jinghan Li. 2023. "Mapping the Social, Economic, and Ecological Impact of Floods in Brisbane" Water 15, no. 21: 3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213842