Research Progress on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loss in Small Watersheds: A Regional Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Effect of Rainfall on the Output of N and P in Small Watersheds
2.1. Effect of Rainfall Amount
2.2. Effect of Rainfall Intensity
2.3. Effect of Rainfall Duration
3. Effect of Land-Use Type
3.1. Agricultural Watershed
Watershed Type | Watershed Characteristics | Main Pollution Source | N, P Loss Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Small agricultural watershed | Randomness, complexity; the scope of pollution is not easy to determine | Fertilizer, pesticide, rural domestic sewage, livestock, and poultry breeding wastewater | N is mainly lost in the form of soluble TN and nitrate N. P is mainly lost in the form of a PP. | [40,43] |
Small wetland watershed | Ecological vulnerability, biological diversity, and strong purification ability | Industrial wastewater, breeding sewage, domestic sewage | N is mainly lost in the form of dissolved state N, and P is mainly lost in PP. | [45] |
Small grassland watershed | High vegetation coverage area and single structure | Animal husbandry, domestic sewage | N is mainly lost in the form of TN, and P is mainly lost in PP | [46,47] |
Small forest watershed | High spatial density | Atmospheric deposition | Surface runoff has great influence on N and P loss in small forest watersheds. N is lost in the form of NH4+-N, NO3−-N, and P is mainly lost in the form of PP | [48] |
Small urban watershed | Nature is regional and hierarchical in structure | Domestic sewage | Underlying surface has a large impact on N and P loss in small urban watersheds. N is mainly lost in the form of dissolved N and P is mainly lost in the form of PP | [49] |
3.2. Wetland Watershed
3.3. Grassland Watershed
3.4. Forest Watershed
3.5. Urban Watershed
4. Prevention and Control Measures of N and P Loss
4.1. Prevention and Control Measures in Rainfall
4.2. Prevention and Control Measures for Different Land-Use Types
4.3. Limitations of N and P Loss Prevention and Control Measures
- (1)
- Lack of comprehensive management: Small watersheds involve multiple stakeholders and decentralized management, which can hinder effective coordination and implementation of prevention and control measures. Developing comprehensive management mechanisms and coordinating bodies is necessary to ensure the success of these strategies.
- (2)
- Land use variability: Small watersheds often consist of diverse land-use types, including agriculture, forests, and urban areas. Each land-use type contributes to N and P loss differently, making it challenging to design universal measures that address the unique characteristics of each land use.
- (3)
- Balancing agricultural development and environmental protection: Agriculture is crucial for food security in small watersheds, but it is also a significant source of N and P loss. Striking a balance between agricultural development and environmental protection requires the implementation of scientifically sound agricultural management practices to sustain production while reducing N and P loss risks.
- (4)
- Financial and technical constraints: Effectively preventing and controlling N and P loss requires substantial financial and technical resources. However, many small watersheds face limitations in terms of economic conditions and technical capacity, leading to difficulties in implementing prevention and control measures.
- (5)
- Uncertainty of influencing factors: The occurrence and extent of N and P loss are influenced by various factors, such as rainfall, soil type, and vegetation cover. However, there is uncertainty in understanding the variations and mechanisms of these factors, making it challenging to accurately predict and address N and P loss effectively.
5. Summary and Prospect
- (1)
- Conducting extensive research on rainfall processes in small watersheds, as well as the migration and transformation patterns of N and P under various land-use types. This includes studying the temporal and spatial patterns of rainfall changes, rainfall-formation mechanisms, the interrelationship between rainfall and climate change, and the overall impact of rainfall on water resources and ecosystems.
- (2)
- Establishing long-term monitoring of N and P concentrations in runoff. To gain a comprehensive understanding of nutrient status, N and P sources, and the processes of migration and transformation, it is crucial to monitor the concentrations of various forms of TN, NH4+-N, NO3−-N, TP, and dissolved P in water bodies. Additionally, monitoring eutrophication indicators, such as the N-P ratio, can help assess the nutrient status and overall water quality of the watershed.
- (3)
- Investigating the transport and fate of N and P in small watersheds. This can be achieved by utilizing isotope-tracer techniques and chemical analysis to trace the sources and transport pathways of N and P. Such research will provide a deeper understanding of N and P transfers, transformations, and destinations within small watersheds.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A catchment area in Canada | 0.026 km2 | _ | _ | SWMM model for rainfall runoff management | Exponential-function correlation | L = Cp | [15] |
The Yangtze River Delta | _ | _ | 1050 mm | Data analysis | Power-function correlation | L = kPb | [16] |
Yangzikeng small watershed, Guangdong Province | 90 km2 | 7° | 1875.3 mm | Data analysis | Power-function correlation | L = kPb | [17] |
Xiangshui Village, Sichuan Province | 0.1389 km2 | 3.16° | 961.3 mm | Data analysis | Logarithmic- function correlation | L = k1ln(P) + M | [18] |
Jiangjin District of Chongqing Municipality | 3219 km2 | 20° | 1030.7 mm | Study-area monitoring and data analysis | First-function correlation | L = k2P + N | [19] |
Miyun reservoir | 15,788 km2 | 0~79° | 300~700 mm | Water-quality monitoring data and data analysis | Quadratic-function correlation | L = k3P2 + mP + Q | [20] |
Watershed Name | Area (km2) | Geology | Rainfall Amount (mm) | Rainfall Duration (h) | TN (kg) | NO3−-N (kg) | NH4+-N (kg) | TP (kg) | PP (kg) | TDP (kg) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baimachahe small watershed (China) | 4.08 | hilly | 123.4 | 45.3 | 577.6 | 83.9 | 265.4 | — | — | — | [28] |
66.3 | 31 | 76.1 | 34.3 | 12.2 | — | — | — | ||||
19.7 | 33.5 | 28.2 | 11.9 | 11.8 | — | — | — | ||||
Qingshuihe River watershed (China) | 2380 | mountainous | 13.8 | 6 | 1249.92 | 1074.18 | 41.17 | 181.70 | 162.66 | 19.04 | [30] |
20.7 | 5 | 2094.12 | 1545.84 | 141.15 | 262.99 | 237.59 | 25.41 | ||||
8.0 | 3 | 1765.37 | 1195.44 | 182.82 | 185.85 | 163.68 | 22.18 | ||||
14.5 | 9 | 1170.83 | 1046.54 | 49.96 | 74.67 | 56.56 | 18.11 | ||||
Chenjiagou small watershed (China) | 8.94 | mountainous | 5.1 | 12 | 8.46 | 4.18 | 2.05 | — | — | — | [14] |
23.8 | 12 | 20.80 | 14.06 | 3.97 | — | — | — | ||||
34.7 | 12 | 91.26 | 46.68 | 24.24 | — | — | — | ||||
Wuchuan watershed (China) | 1.88 | hilly | 38.9 | 17 | 68 | 41 | 21 | — | — | — | [31] |
15.1 | 5 | 23 | 5 | 7 | — | — | — | ||||
58.2 | 19 | 1035 | 602 | 252 | — | — | — | ||||
101.2 | 9 | 2117 | 657 | 337 | — | — | — | ||||
Chaohe watershed (China) | 5340 | mountainous | 127.6 | 24 | 274.73 | 211.71 | 9.71 | 90.21 | 88.91 | 1.29 | [29] |
75.6 | 37 | 186.72 | 146.07 | 9.25 | 2.97 | 2.31 | 0.66 | ||||
71.3 | 32 | 37.52 | 33.79 | 0.58 | 2.10 | 0.47 | 1.63 | ||||
29.6 | 7 | 17.93 | 16.58 | 0.43 | 0.72 | 0.20 | 0.52 | ||||
Jiulong River watershed (China) | 9570 | hilly | 232 | 91 | 27,465 | 17,513 | 7943 | — | — | — | [33] |
118 | 78 | 4019 | 1775 | 478 | — | — | — | ||||
Shibetsu watershed (Japan) | 679 | — | 80 | 16 | 18.3 | 6.3 | — | — | — | [32] | |
91 | 23 | 168.4 | 24.9 | — | — | — | — | ||||
55 | 15 | 56.9 | 23.6 | — | — | — | — | ||||
50 | 19 | 58.0 | 21.7 | — | — | — | — |
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Wang, C.; Huang, C.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, L.; Li, T.; Peng, J.; Zhang, L. Research Progress on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loss in Small Watersheds: A Regional Review. Water 2023, 15, 2894. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162894
Wang C, Huang C, Zhang S, Zhang L, Li T, Peng J, Zhang L. Research Progress on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loss in Small Watersheds: A Regional Review. Water. 2023; 15(16):2894. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162894
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Chunbo, Chengtao Huang, Shuai Zhang, Lei Zhang, Tingzhen Li, Jiyou Peng, and Liuyi Zhang. 2023. "Research Progress on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loss in Small Watersheds: A Regional Review" Water 15, no. 16: 2894. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162894