Modelling Microplastics in the River Thames: Sources, Sinks and Policy Implications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Measuring Microplastics in Rivers
2.2. Application of INCA Microplastics Model to the River Thames—Model Structure
2.3. Thames Case Study
3. Results
3.1. Driving Climate and Spatial Data
3.2. Model Calibration and Validation
3.3. Model Comparison with MP Measurements for Sediments and Surface Waters
- Scenario 1: Microplastics input from wastewater effluent
- Scenario 2: Microplastics input from wastewater effluent and sludges application in agriculture
- Scenario 3: Mitigation
4. Discussion
4.1. Approaches to Microplastics Mitigation through Policy, Regulation and Management
4.2. Mitigation Approaches at the Source
4.3. Impacts of BREXIT and the UK Leaving the EU
4.4. Legal Controls on Plastic Transport
4.5. Taxation Controls
4.6. Other Diffuse Sources
4.7. Mitigation Approaches along Pathways
4.8. Mitigation Approaches through Standardization of Measurement
5. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reach | Downstream Section | Catchment Area (km2) | Reach Length (m) | Effluent Flow (m3/s) | Mean Slope | % Arable | % Pasture | % Forest | % Urban |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Eynsham | 1609 | 54,100 | 0.50 | 0.0005 | 74.3 | 16.5 | 2.8 | 6.4 |
2 | Oxford | 526 | 12,420 | 0.14 | 0.000418 | 60.2 | 16.3 | 5 | 18.5 |
3 | Sutton Courtenay | 1288 | 18,960 | 0.70 | 0.000374 | 72.4 | 15.3 | 2.2 | 10 |
4 | Days Weir | 58 | 9320 | 0.06 | 0.000128 | 78.8 | 0 | 2.8 | 18.3 |
5 | Reading | 1154 | 35,150 | 0.43 | 0.000273 | 72.8 | 10.3 | 8.2 | 8.6 |
6 | Staines | 3632 | 70,410 | 3.85 | 0.000406 | 43.9 | 12.2 | 15.1 | 28.7 |
7 | Walton | 1102 | 9540 | 0.81 | 0.0001 | 38.8 | 13.1 | 25.3 | 22.7 |
8 | Kingston | 589 | 7740 | 0.96 | 0.0003 | 30.5 | 15.4 | 17.7 | 36.3 |
Class | MP1 | MP2 | MP3 | MP4 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eynsham | 7 | 12 | 4514 | 8927 | 13,460 |
Oxford | 3 | 6 | 2335 | 4795 | 7139 |
Sutton Courtenay | 7 | 14 | 5913 | 11,989 | 17,923 |
Days Weir | 7 | 13 | 4848 | 8992 | 13,860 |
Reading | 30 | 51 | 16,114 | 33,886 | 50,081 |
Staines | 320 | 616 | 288,816 | 640,622 | 930,374 |
Walton | 46 | 87 | 37,827 | 74,177 | 112,137 |
Kingston | 40 | 77 | 33,056 | 65,405 | 98,578 |
Class | MP1 | MP2 | MP3 | MP4 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eynsham | 7 | 1138 | 7394 | 8970 | 17,509 |
Oxford | 3 | 559 | 3809 | 4817 | 9188 |
Sutton Courtenay | 7 | 984 | 8630 | 12,030 | 21,651 |
Days Weir | 7 | 926 | 7013 | 9023 | 16,969 |
Reading | 30 | 3764 | 23,790 | 34,010 | 61,594 |
Staines | 320 | 21,131 | 342,260 | 641,543 | 1,005,254 |
Walton | 46 | 2850 | 44,684 | 74,288 | 121,868 |
Kingston | 40 | 2252 | 38,330 | 65,491 | 106,113 |
Class | MP1 | MP2 | MP3 | MP4 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eynsham | 3 | 569 | 3697 | 4485 | 8754 |
Oxford | 2 | 280 | 1904 | 2409 | 4594 |
Sutton Courtenay | 4 | 492 | 4315 | 6015 | 10,826 |
Days Weir | 4 | 463 | 3507 | 4512 | 8485 |
Reading | 15 | 1882 | 11,895 | 17,005 | 30,797 |
Staines | 160 | 10,565 | 171,130 | 320,771 | 502,627 |
Walton | 23 | 1425 | 22,342 | 37,144 | 60,934 |
Kingston | 20 | 1126 | 19,165 | 32,745 | 53,056 |
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Whitehead, P.G.; Bussi, G.; Hughes, J.M.R.; Castro-Castellon, A.T.; Norling, M.D.; Jeffers, E.S.; Rampley, C.P.N.; Read, D.S.; Horton, A.A. Modelling Microplastics in the River Thames: Sources, Sinks and Policy Implications. Water 2021, 13, 861. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060861
Whitehead PG, Bussi G, Hughes JMR, Castro-Castellon AT, Norling MD, Jeffers ES, Rampley CPN, Read DS, Horton AA. Modelling Microplastics in the River Thames: Sources, Sinks and Policy Implications. Water. 2021; 13(6):861. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060861
Chicago/Turabian StyleWhitehead, Paul G., Gianbattista Bussi, Jocelyne M. R. Hughes, Ana T. Castro-Castellon, Magnus D. Norling, Elizabeth S. Jeffers, Cordelia P. N. Rampley, Daniel S. Read, and Alice A. Horton. 2021. "Modelling Microplastics in the River Thames: Sources, Sinks and Policy Implications" Water 13, no. 6: 861. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060861