Striving for Borehole Drilling Professionalism in Africa: A Review of a 16-Year Initiative through the Rural Water Supply Network from 2004 to 2020
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Initiative Chronology
2.1. Initiative Launch
2.2. From Flagship, to Theme to Topic
2.3. Phases of Activity, Core Partners and Leadership
2.4. The Foundation Phase
2.5. Phase I—Cost-Effective Boreholes (2007–2008)
2.6. Phase II—Cost-Effective Boreholes (2009–2014)
2.7. Phase III—Professional Manual Drilling (2013–2014)
2.8. Phase IV—Professional Drilling (2015–2017)
2.9. Phase V—Strengthening UNICEF and Partner Capacity to Raise Professionalism of Drilling and Drilling Management’Professional Drilling (2017–2020)
3. Initiative Funding Mechanisms and Cost
4. Methods
4.1. A Mix of Methods
4.2. Documenting and Understanding
4.3. Engagement and Partnership
4.4. Engagement with UNICEF Country Offices and Responding to In-Country Needs
4.5. Provision of Guidance and Training
4.6. Knowedge Management—Informing, Sharing, Inspiring and Exchange
4.7. Outreach and Engagement
4.8. Languages
4.9. Innovations
- Public webinars were still fairly new at the time of the manual drilling webinar series in 2014 (Table 4), which set a benchmark for RWSN.
- The manual drilling compendium [72] was the first document on the subject that pulled data together from so many diverse sources.
- Inspired by a film on sustainability produced by WaterAid, the animated films communicated rather dry, technical subjects in a short, concise and humorous manner.
- The online courses not only enabled professionals to be taught, but also enabled discussions and assignments by the participants to be mined to provide an overview of (otherwise undocumented) groundwater issues from over 50 countries [118].
4.10. Contention
5. Perspectives and Issues
- Groundwater use data: there are concerns in some countries that available data does not provide a full picture of the status quo of groundwater reliance. For example, participants from Somalia and Yemen believed that the actual groundwater dependency in their respective countries is much higher than data provided by the Joint Monitoring Programme. Alternative figures and data sources were shared from participants in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.
- Self-supply refers to households taking care of their own water needs. Populations in Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Timor Leste, Zambia and Zimbabwe were mentioned as being particularly reliant on self-supply. Participants noted that the lack of knowledge of what “constitutes a good quality borehole by individuals that invest, as well as a lack of understanding of what this costs [has] long- term implications for the service and groundwater resources”.
- Drilling data: Information from maps and records of previous drilling is often very difficult to obtain. Out of 42 countries, only 14 (33%) were believed (by participants) to have national groundwater databases. In some cases, databases are old and not comprehensive, but, in some countries, there are initiatives underway to upgrade, or establish groundwater databases.
- Difficult hydrogeological settings and the challenges of drilling in hard-to-reach communities: include examples in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Syria and Timor Leste.
- Siting: Borehole siting practices vary, with some clients contracting it separately to consultants and others relying on the drilling company itself to undertake siting. A lack of skills and knowledge, professionalism, and equipment as well as particular challenges of working in insecure contexts are challenges for siting. Roles and responsibilities are not always apparent. Participants discussed who should be responsible for siting, and when it should ideally take place at length. The importance of addressing land issues when siting was noted.
- Skills: According to participants, there are weaknesses in the skills, knowledge and experience of staff responsible for siting, drilling, supervision, data collection (especially by drilling contractors) and project management in many countries. People tend to enter the drilling industry without any formal practical training and thus learn on the job.
- Procurement and contracting management: Among the participants, there was recognition of the importance of pre-qualification, pre-bid meetings, sit visits, good communication between the client and contractors throughout the procurement and contracting process, as well as the minimizing distance between boreholes drilled under one contract. However, many organizations struggle with insufficient or inexperienced staff and unrealistic deadlines.
- Corruption is a major impediment to drilling professionalism. Ideas to prevent or reduce corruption include improving transparency, undertaking pre- qualification (with due diligence), registration and licensing, supporting drillers associations, undertaking inspection, use of penalties, paying proper salaries and raising skills. From the four steps listed above, experiences of post-construction monitoring was the most limited.
- Payment (or not) for dry boreholes or poor water quality is a contentious issue, as evidenced by lively online discussions and considerable reflections within the assignments. Some participants held on to their belief that dry boreholes should never be explicitly paid for by clients, while others took a different approach, recognizing the risks to the drilling contractor, particularly in difficult hydrogeological environments, and citing examples of inadvertent problems caused by non-payment−particularly with respect to reductions in construction quality.
- Drilling supervision was discussed widely, with reflections on who should supervise, noting that in some cases there may be more than one person/institution involved, with overlapping responsibilities, while in other cases drilling supervision is being neglected. Stories of supervision shared from several countries highlight staffing shortages vis-à-vis need, a lack of skilled supervisors, the practical difficulties of undertaking supervision in remote areas, inadequate logistics, a lack of budgeting for proper planning and supervision, travel restrictions due to security concerns and corruption. While full time supervision was recognized as desirable, funding realities and attitudes of management, political leadership or donors mean that part-time supervision is more common. There was recognition that communities can support drilling supervision, but that this needs to be handled with care, and while they can record what is taking place if given enough information, that communities cannot replace professional supervisors. Good practices of drilling supervision do exist, including oversight of junior staff by experienced supervisors, clearly defined milestones for part time supervision and making good use of checklists. There were several calls for more training on supervision to take place.
- Borehole cameras are rare or not available at all in several countries.
- Institutional (and legal) framework: Many countries have set up protocols, policies and regulations that are in line with the principles of cost-effective boreholes that the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) published in 2010. However, with few exceptions, the level of implementation and compliance with regulations was considered by participants to be low. Zambia, Uganda, Malawi and Kenya demonstrated efforts and progress, while Trinidad and Tobago stood out in terms of licensing and training. As a federal country, particular states in Nigeria, including Lagos and Kaduna have set up regulatory commissions. In sharp contrast, Somalia, a country facing ongoing conflict is being left behind from the perspective of course participants. Zimbabwe and Bangladesh are examples of countries with regulations in place, but challenges in getting them widely known and enforced. In many countries, the situation was considered as mixed.
- Finance: private drilling companies face challenges with respect to finance (estimating costs and determining prices, cash flow, bank guarantees and payment delays), staffing, management, equipment maintenance, competition, time delays in project implementation, as well as challenges entering the market. However, there are experiences of businesses being supported with loans, tax relief, accessing equipment and quality materials.
- Drilling associations are considered a potential way of improving professionalism, and participants noted that they have been established in Chad, DRC (manual drilling only), Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Thailand and Uganda, whereas in many countries there are none.
- Conflict, emergency and humanitarian settings face particular challenges with respect to including planning, getting to the field, risks of losing equipment, fluctuating funding and conflicts between host and displaced persons. In countries that have faced protracted crisis, human and equipment capacity can be very low.
6. Initiative Outcomes
- Through and within UNICEF
- ○
- The Code of Practice [33] provided much-needed guidance to country offices and became a reference document for the sector, inspiring a number of nationally endorsed standards and codes of practice/ conduct, guiding the creation/revitalization of national drilling associations and providing an analytical framework and benchmark for country assessments (e.g., Reference [45]) and the UNICEF Evaluation [126].
- ○
- At least half of 63+ UNICEF country offices “strengthened the spare part supply chain and supported the professionalization and innovation in the drilling sector” [126].
- ○
- UNICEF played a major role in either introducing or supporting the scaling up of manual drilling, and in sub-Saharan Africa, manual drilling techniques and the manual drilling sector are now well established [126].
- ○
- UNICEF has encouraged new approaches and produced additional resources and guidance to support country offices to carry out efficient procurement and contract management and professionalize the national drilling sector [126].
- ○
- A few UNICEF country offices have introduced more professional, independent and closer/full-time supervision through third-party engineering companies (e.g., in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Madagascar, Pakistan and Rwanda) [126].
- ○
- Professionalization of the drilling sector has been supported in nearly 20% of UNICEF’s Rural Water Supplies programme countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa [126].
- Other organisations:
- Within the sector more broadly
- ○
- Effective expansion of the body of knowledge and strengthening capacities in manual drilling and the professionalization of the drilling sector [126].
- ○
- Application of skills and knowledge obtained from RWSN by network members [95]:
- ○
- “I have initiated fabrication of Manual & Low powered water well Drilling Rigs in my establishment”.
- ○
- “I have used the manual drilling resources to promote percussion drilling with small manual drilling teams. This approach will hopefully lead to improved rural groundwater development in some remote, low-lying limestone islands in Solomon Islands”.
- ○
- ○
- Capacity building in professional drilling is an action area for the African Ministers Council on Water (AMCOW) Pana African Groundwater Progamme (APAGroP) [109].
- Country-specific
- ○
- RWSN has played a role in pushing down the cost of drilling in Kenya through facilitating discussions and providing guidelines amongst practitioners. “Previously, major drillers with large scale rotary drilling rigs were recognized as having the capacity to deliver significant water supply. Through RWSN’s continuous debate on cost of services and sharing knowledge around applicable technologies (for instance on manual drilling), and study visits have helped to stimulate individual entrepreneurs to take up less costly options. Eventually these entrepreneurs have formed an association that is now recognised by the government. An interviewee has stated that the cost of drilling in some instances has fallen from $15,000 to $3000 for shallow boreholes when low cost options are promoted. While there were likely other influencing factors to reduce drilling costs, RWSN’s support in hosting the debate on the cost of services has in some way contributed to this outcome” [95].
- ○
- ○
- Development of guidance for Sierra Leone on hand dug wells supported by WSP [58].
- Online course participants [132]:
- ○
- 84% of post-course survey respondents shared or spread knowledge gained, e.g., by sharing materials/resources and training
- ○
- Human resources: “The organization has hired a dedicated engineer to undertake supervision of water facilities construction”; “A professional consultant is hired to supervise water well drilling work implemented with UNICEF support”; “The organization has hired a dedicated engineer to undertake supervision of water facilities construction”
- ○
- Bid documents/bosting and pricing: “Learning to write more rigorous contracts and development of Scope of Works, Engineers Estimates etc which helped the stemming of cash flow from the organization that would have been lost due to variations in the contract”. “methodology analysis method calculation tables” have been changed; “The preparations of bid document and requirements How to write the items of pricing in contract in case of wrong sitting” have been changed.
- ○
- “There was a meeting organised by JICA for the government, district water officers, WASH partners and drillers to discuss the effectiveness and implementation and use of the Technical Manual, what gaps are observed by the implementors of drilling projects as well as drillers. It was very good.”
7. Initiative Impact
- “The Code of Practice led to—or reinforced—at least one major evolution in UNICEF’s RWS-related procurement activities: the more systematic application of the principle of subsidiarity for procurement. During the evaluation period (2006–2016), countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali and Mozambique followed this decentralized trend… In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, purchasing locally led to a significant reduction in inland transport costs, which can be very high in such a large and infrastructure-poor country” [126].
- Efficiency gains have been documented in several countries, e.g., drilling costs have declined by one third in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Zambia [134]. However, the lack of systematic monitoring and reporting means that it is not clear whether these reductions have come at a cost of quality.
8. Discussion
- Procurement: The UNICEF evaluation [126] found that the sector good practice on procurement as per the 2010 Code of Practice’s (Table 1), was to be rarely applied in case study countries. “Some staff noted that UNICEF’s standard proposals assessment system disproportionally favours tenders offering the cheapest price among those technically qualified” even if these are significantly below the estimated cost price [126]. Given the longstanding contention between efficiency and quality noted in Section 4.10, this is not surprising.
- Contract management: “A minimum acceptable yield was not always established in contracts with drilling companies” in UNICEF Programmes [126].
- Training: A lack of training of private contractors by UNICEF (broader than drilling only) [126]. Training with respect to drilling professionalism seems to be extremely limited.
- Skills: Concerns about a lack of skills, coupled with lack of training on borehole drilling and its management [118].
- Human rights—including accountability in procurement, contract management and the provision of high-quality services for provision of high-quality services.
- Leaving no one behind—including reaching remote-difficult-to-serve areas with manual drilling technologies and ensuring accountability.
- Systems thinking and systems strengthening—to consider the legal and institutional issues that impact on drilling professionalism.
- Youth—including training, skills development and professionalism of the drilling industry.
- Climate resilience—emphasizing the importance of groundwater data and its management (Principles 8 and 9 of the Code of Practice—Table 1). Further, recognizing sustainable groundwater development’s potential as an adaptation measure to cope with increasing incidence of droughts and water scarcity.
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Foster, S.; Tuinhof, A.; Garduño, H. Sustainable Groundwater Management: Lessons from Practice. Groundwater Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. A Strategic Overview of Key Issues and Major Needs; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Anscombe, J. East Mangochi Rural Water Supply and Sanitation project (EMRWSS) Premature Failure of Hand Pumps, Unpublished Consultancy Report; GITEC Consult GmbH: Cologne, Germany, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Chowns, E. Community management: The limits of institutional design and collective action. In Proceedings of the International Research Society for Public Management (IRSPM) Conference, Panel I103, Birmingham, UK, 31 March 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Bonsor, H.C.; Oates, N.P.; Chilton, P.J.; Carter, R.C.; MacDonald, A.M.; Calow, R.; Alwo, R.; Wilson, P.; Tumutungire, M.; Bennie, M. A Hidden Crisis: Strengthening the Evidence Base on the Sustainability of Rural Groundwater Supplies: Results from a Pilot Study in Uganda; OR/15/019; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Furey, S. Handpumps: Where Now? A Synthesis of Online Discussions (2012–2014); Rural Water Supply Network; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Liddle, E.F.R. Review of Handpump-Borehole Implementation in Uganda; OR/18/002; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- UNESCO-IHP Groundwater Portal. Available online: https://groundwaterportal.net (accessed on 19 November 2020).
- FAO. Shared Global Vision for Groundwater Governance 2030 and a Call-for-Action; Food and Agriculture Organisation: Rome, Italy, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- RWSN. Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) Strategy 2018–2023; Rural Water Supply Network; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- The RWSN Story. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/about/history (accessed on 22 October 2020).
- Doyen, J. A Comparative Study on Water Well Drilling Costs in Kenya; UNDP-World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Ball, P. Solutions for Reducing Borehole Costs in Rural Africa, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- RWSN. Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) Strategy 2012 to 2014; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. A Brief History of Hand Drilled Wells in Niger. Only the Beginning, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Baumann, E.; Ball, P.; Beyene, A. Rationalization of Drilling Operations in Tanzania: Review of the Borehole Drilling Sector in Tanzania; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Carter, R. Drilling for Water in Ethiopia. Volume 1-Main Report, Water and Sanitation Programme, Government of Ethiopia; Rural Water Supply Network: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Robinson, A. Who Is Going to Drill the African Boreholes, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN): St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Carter, R. Ten-Step Guide towards Cost-Effective Boreholes, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- WE Consult. Evaluation of the PlayPumps Installed in Mozambique; Water and Sanitation Programme: Maputo, Mozambique, 2006; Available online: https://www-tc.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/southernafrica904/flash/pdf/mozambique_report.pdf (accessed on 27 October 2020).
- Hand Drilling Newsletter Volumes 1–5. 2009. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/fr/ressources/details/161 (accessed on 9 September 2020).
- Adekile, D. The Drilling Environment and Establishing a Drillers Association in Nigeria; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D. Water Well Drilling Association of Nigeria Report 2008, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Marcario, L. Mozambique Drillers Association Inaugural Meeting. Cost Effective Boreholes Newsflash, Water and Sanitation Programme; Rural Water Supply Network: Maputo, Mozambique, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Learning from UNICEF’s Experiences of Water Well Drilling, Skat/UNICEF; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Olabode, O. Hand Drilling in Nigeria: Why Kill an Ant with a Sledgehammer? Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Duffau, B.; Ouedraogo, I. Burkina Faso: Summary of Findings of 2009 Study and Draft National Code of Conduct; RWSN: St. Gallen, Switzerland; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; USAID: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Kwei, C. The Code of Practice for Cost-Effective Boreholes Ghana Country Status Report; RWSN: St. Gallen, Switzerland; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; USAID: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- RWSN. Code of Practice for Cost-Effective Boreholes: Zambia Country Status Report 2009 Final Report; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; USAID: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Olabode, O. Study of Public and Private Borehole Drilling in Nigeria; UNICEF: Abuja, Nigeria, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Hand Drilling Directory; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Health, T.; Tibenderana, P.; Carter, R.C.; Danert, K.; Berhe, E. Borehole Costing Model V2.8 BETA & Quick Start Guide; Cranfield University: Cranfield, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Manual Drilling. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/sustainable-groundwater-management/manual-drilling (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Danert, K.; Armstrong, T.; Adekile, D.; Duffau, B.; Oudeaogo, I.; Cwei, C. Code of Practice for Cost Effective Boreholes; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- SON. Nigerian Industrial Standard NCP 027: 2010-Code of Practice for Water Well Construction ICS 23.040.10; Standards Organistion of Nigeria: Abuja, Nigeria, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Sloots, R. Assessment of Groundwater Investigations and Borehole Drilling Capacity in Uganda; Ministry of Water and Environment/UNICEF: Kampala, Uganda, 2010.
- RWSN Executive Steering Committee. Myths of the Rural Water Supply Sector; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF Toolkit for the Profesionalization of Manual Drilling. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/sustainable-groundwater-management/manual-drilling (accessed on 14 September 2020).
- Harvey, P.; Naugle, J. Professionalizing manual drilling in Africa: A complimentary strategy to achieve the MDG water target. In Proceedings of the Future of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Innovation, Adaptation and Engagement in a Changing World, 35th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK, 6–8 July 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Mangai, S.; Adekile, D.; Retchen, R. Cost Effective Boreholes in Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011 Uganda Rural Water Supply in the 21st Century: Myths of the Past, Visions for the Future, Kampala, Uganda, 29 November–1 December 2011; 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Ferdinando, D.N.J. Accelerated Groundwater Development for Rural Water Supplies in Sri Lanka. In Proceedings of the 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011 Uganda Rural Water Supply in the 21st Century: Myths of the Past, Visions for the Future, Kampala, Uganda, 29 November–1 December 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Carter, R.C.; Chilton, J.; Danert, K.; Olschewski, A. Siting of Drilled Water Wells-A Guide for Project Managers; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gesti Canuto, J.A. Cost Effective Boreholes in Mozambique–An Analysis for Practice under the One Million Initiative 2008–2010; UNICEF: Maputo, Mozambique, 2011; Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/305 (accessed on 27 October 2020).
- RWSN Sustainable Groundwater Development. Available online: https://dgroups.org/rwsn/groundwater (accessed on 14 September 2020).
- Danert, K.; Furey, S. Groundwater Matters: Drinking Water for Rural People; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Government of Sudan. Sudan Drilling Status Report 2012, Drinking Water and Sanitation Unit; Government of Sudan: Khartoum, Sudan, 2012.
- Calow, R.; MacDonald, A.M.; Cross, P. Rural Water Supply Corruption in Ethiopia. In Janelle Plummer Diagnosing Corruption in Ethiopia Perceptions, Realities, and the Way Forward for Key Sectors; World Bank Publications: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; p. 448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Danert, K. Experiences and Ideas from RWSN’s Sustainable Groundwater Community 2013; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Thomas, M. Short Course: Procurement and Contract Administration and the Costing and Pricing of Boreholes; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Thomas, M. Short Course: Basic Hydrogeology and Borehole Siting; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Adekile, D. Tapping Treasure: Cost-Effective Boreholes in Sierra Leone. Training and Guideline Development (2013 to 2014); Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Adelile, D.; Danert, K. Short Course: Drilling Supervision; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Luutu, A.; Carter, R.C.; Olschewski, A. Costing and Pricing-A Guide for Water Well Drilling Enterprises; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adekile, D. Procurement and Contract Management of Drilled Well Construction. A Guide for Supervisors and Project Managers; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D. Supervising Water Well Drilling: A Guide for Supervisors; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Furey, S.G.; Danert, K. Sustainable Groundwater Development: Use, Protect and Enhance; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Schneider, S. Water Supply Well Guidelines for Use in Developing Countries. Schneider, S.J., Ed.; 3rd ed. 2014. Available online: http://www.seidc.com/pdf/WATER_SUPPLY_WELL_GUIDELINES-third_edition.PDF_CP1.pdf (accessed on 27 October 2020).
- Ministry of Water Resources. Principles for Borehole Construction and Rehabilitation in Sierra Leone; Ministry of Water Resources: Freetown, Sierra Leone, 2014.
- Ministry of Water Resources. Technical Guidelines for Construction and Maintenance of Hand Dug Wells; Ministry of Water Resources: Freetown, Sierra Leone, 2014.
- Bartnik, T.; (Norwegian University of Life Sciences(UMB), London, UK). Personal Communication, 2020.
- Danert, K. Professionalising Manual Drilling. Survey of Manual Drilling Experiences-May 2013; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Striving for Professionalism in Cost-Effective Boreholes (SPICE)-Professional Manual Drilling-Final Report, 30th September 2014; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Webinar Series 2014 (UNICEF- RWSN) on Manual Drilling/Webinaires sur le sujet de Forage Manuel; RWSN: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/565 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- UNICEF; Skat Foundation; RWSN. Learning Note 1: Introduction to Manual Drilling Technologies and Their Potential to Improve Rural Water Supplies (11 February 2014); UNICEF, Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF; Skat Foundation; RWSN. Webinar 2: Manual Drilling at Scale (India, Senegal and Bolivia)-Learning Note–English; UNICEF, Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF; Skat Foundation; RWSN. Webinar 3: Good Practices in Manual Drilling Design and Construction (Nigeria, Madagascar & Kenya)-Learning Note–English; UNICEF, Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF; Skat Foundation; RWSN. Webinar 4: What do governments love and hate about manual drilling? (Niger, Guinea & Ethiopia)-Learning Not –English; UNICEF, Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF; Skat Foundation; RWSN. Learning Note 5: Private Sector and NGO Experiences of Introducing and Developing Markets for Manual Drilling–Malawi, Zambia & Sierra Leone-Learning Note–English; UNICEF, Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Chad’s Growing Manual Drilling Industry; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Chad-Documentation of Manual Drilling. 2015. Available online: https://vimeo.com/84021165 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Danert, K.; Adekile, D.; Gesti Canuto, J.A. Manually Drilled Boreholes: Providing water in Nigeria’s Megacity of Lagos and beyond; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Adekile, D.; Gesti Canuto, J.A. Documentation of Manual Drilling in Lagos and Beyond 2014. Available online: https://vimeo.com/107047730 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Danert, K. Manual Drilling Compendium 2015; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hidden Crisis: Unravelling Current Failures for Future Success in Rural Groundwater Supply. Available online: https://upgro.org/consortium/hidden-crisis2/ (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Tincani, L.; Ross, I.; Zaman, R.; Burr, P.; Mujica, A.; Evans, B. Regional assessment of the operational sustainability of water and sanitation services in Sub-Saharan Africa; VFM-WASH Project; Oxford Policy Management: Oxford, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Drilling: The Importance of Good Borehole Siting. Available online: https://vimeo.com/126795160 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- A Borehole That Lasts for a Lifetime. 2015. Available online: https://vimeo.com/128478995 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Professional Drilling. Available online: https://vimeo.com/channels/1432819 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Water and Sanitation Programme. Strengthening the Domestic Drilling Industry–Lessons from the Mozambique; Water and Sanitation Programme: Maputo, Mozambique, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Groundwater Governance (RWSN-UPGro). Available online: https://vimeo.com/121992412 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Four Steps to Better Drilling Contracts. Available online: https://vimeo.com/171751215 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Why Are Some Boreholes Better Than Others? Available online: https://vimeo.com/185289895 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Adekile, D.; Danert, K. Procurement, Costing & Pricing and Contract Management of Borehole Construction– Zambia Short Course Report; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Adekile, D.; Gesti Canuto, J. RWSN E-discussion on Groundwater Regulation-July 2016; RWSN: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Ouedrago, J.; Balima, A.; Zombre, A. Good practice for borehole drilling in Burkina Faso; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Gesti Canuto, J. Professional Water Well Drilling. A UNICEF Guidance Note; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- 7th Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) Forum-Radisson Blu Abidjan Airport, Cote D’Ivoire. Available online: https://rwsn7.net/content/ (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- MacDonald, A.M.; Davies, J.C.R.; Chilton, J. Developing Groundwater A Guide for Rural Water Supply, Rugby; ITDG Publishing: Bourton-on-Dunsmore, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Tindimugaya, C. Registration of groundwater consultants in Uganda: Rationale and status. In Proceedings of the 7th RWSN Forum “Water for Everyone”, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, 29 November–2 December 2016. [Google Scholar]
- The Uganda Drilling Contractors’ Association (Udca). Available online: http://www.ugandadrillingcontractors.org/about.php (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Cardiff University. Resilience In Groundwater Supply Systems: Integrating Resource-Based Approaches with Agency, Behaviour and Choice in West Africa (RIGSS). 2016. Available online: https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/research/explore/find-a-project/view/523269-resilience-in-groundwater-supply-systems-integrating-resource-based-approaches-with-agency,-behaviour-and-choice-in-west-africa-rigss (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Adekile, D. Oxfam, Groundwater Relief, Supervision of Drilling Training Workshop 15th–24th November, 15th to 17th December, 2016; Oxfam: Maiduguri, Nigeria, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Malawi Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development. Malawi: Technical Manual for Water Wells and Groundwater Monitoring Systems and Standard Operating Procedures for Groundwater; RWSN: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2016. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/807 (accessed on 26 October 2020).
- Adekile, D.; Matabire, B.; Gonzalez Alonso, M.A.; Danert, K. Striving for Professionalism in Cost Effective Boreholes Angola; UNICEF: Luanda, Angola; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Fiel, P. Preliminary Assessment on the Status of the Water well Drilling Sector in Angola, Final Report; UNICEF: Luanda, Angola, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- PEM Consult. Evaluation of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN); Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- WaterAid. Note de Synthèse-Atelier de Renforcement de Capacité en Supervision de la Qualité de Réalisation des Forages; WaterAid and 2iE: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Karen, M.; Danert, K. Borehole Drilling Supervision Short Course, Zambia (2018); Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Borehole Drilling Supervision Short Course, Zambia. 2018. Available online: https://vimeo.com/290225478 (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Danert, K. Professional Management of Water Well Drilling Projects and Programmes Online Course 2018-Report for Course Participants; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D.; Danert, K.; Gesti Canuto, J.; Zadi, D.; Harvey, P.; Cabrera-Clerget, A. Borehole Drilling–Planning, Contracting & Management: A UNICEF Toolkit; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- SADC_GMI. SADC-GMI Short Course 1: Drilling Supervision (2018); SADC-GMI: Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Mannix, N. Water Supply Borehole Drilling Supervision Training—Water Futures Programme, Climate Justice Funds; Balaka: Ntcheu District, Malawi, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Water Resources Institute. Training in Drilling and Construction of Boreholes at the Water Resources Institute, Uganda (2018–2019); Water Resources Institute: Entebbe, Uganda, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Serele, C. Improving the Professionalism in the Drilling Sector for Cost-Effective Boreholes in Madagascar; UNICEF: Antananarivo, Madagascar, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Statutory Instruments for Groundwater in Zambia. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/803 (accessed on 26 October 2020).
- Danert, K. Professional Management of Water Well Drilling Projects & Programmes Online Course 2019 Process Report; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Traore, U. Challenges of Water Well Drillers & Water Well Drillers Associations—Case Studies of Six Countries: Angola, Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Nigeria, Uganda and the USA; Skat Foundation and Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Concerns about Corrosion and the Quality of Handpump Components in Burkina Faso and Beyond; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- AMCOW launches Its Pan-African Groundwater Program. Available online: https://upgro.org/2019/10/08/amcow-launches-its-pan-african-groundwater-program/ (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Ministère de l’Eau et de l’Assainissement. Feuille de Route pour la mies en place d’un code de bonne conduite en materie de realisation des ouvrage d’AEP; Ministère de l’Eau et de l’Assainissement, Direction Générale de l’Eau Potable: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2019.
- Adekile, D. GIZ Support to Strengthening Resilience in North-East Nigeria. Available online: https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/54540.html (accessed on 27 October 2020).
- Adekile, D. GIZ Support to Strengthen Resilience in North East Nigeria, Hydrogeology for Executives. Unpublished Workshop Report. 31 October 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Adekile, D. Nigeria Lake Chad basin Project, Report of Site Visit and Training Workshop on Professional Management of Borehole Projects; North East Regional Initiative; Creative Associates: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Mwathunga, E.; Fallas, H.C.; Macallister, D.; Mkandawire, T.; Makuluni, P.; Shaba, C.; Jumbo, S.; Moses, D.; Whaley, L.; Banks, E.; et al. Physical Factors Contributing to Rural Water Supply Functionality Performance in MALAWI; OR/19/057; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Owor, M.; Fallas, H.C.; Macallister, D.J.; Okullo, F.; Katusiime, G.; Berochan, L.; Whaley, E.; Banks, V.; Macdonald, A. Physical Factors Contributing to Rural Water Supply Functionality Performance in Uganda; OR/19/056; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Kane, C.H.; Danert, K. A Turning Point for Manual Drilling in the Democratic Republic of Congo; Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Professional Water Well Drilling. Available online: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/sustainable-groundwater-management/professionnal-water-well-drilling (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Danert, K. Groundwater and Drilling-Insights from over 50 Countries; Skat Foundation: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rural Water Supply Network-blog: Category: Cost Effective Boreholes. Available online: https://rwsn.blog/category/sustainable-groundwater-development/cost-effective-boreholes-sustainable-groundwater-development/ (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Rural Water Supply Network–blog. Category: Manual Drilling. Available online: https://rwsn.blog/category/sustainable-groundwater-development/manual-drilling-sustainable-groundwater-development/ (accessed on 21 September 2020).
- Rural Water Supply Network-blog, Category: Drilling. Available online: https://rwsn.blog/category/drilling-2/ (accessed on 26 October 2020).
- UNICEF. Learning from Experience: Evaluation of UNICEF’s Water and Sanitation Programme in India, 1966–1998; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K.; Carter, R.C.; Adekile, D.; MacDonald, A.M. Cost-Effective boreholes in sub-Saharan Africa. In Proceedings of the 34th WEDC International Conference—Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 18–22 May 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Bonsor, H.C.; MacDonald, A.M.; Casey, V.; Carter, R.C.; Wilson, P. The need for a standard approach to assessing the functionality of rural community water supplies. Hydrogeology J. 2018, 26, 367–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Galbane, H.A. Conception et execution optimales et valorisation des forages au Burkina Faso. In Proceedings of the 6th RWSN Forum, Kampala, Uganda, 29 November–1 December 2011. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF. Global Evaluation of UNICEF’s Drinking Water Supply Programming in Rural Areas and Small Towns, 2006–2016; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- The 2015 University of Oklahoma International WaTER Conference. Available online: https://www.ou.edu/coe/centers/water/conference/2015_Conference (accessed on 3 October 2020).
- Leading and Learning in WASH. Center for Global Safe WASH, Emory Univeryity. Available online: https://www.cgswash.org/research/seminar-series/ (accessed on 3 October 2020).
- Danert, K.; Adekile, D.; Gesti Canuto, J. Group for Sustainable Groundwater Development: E-Discussion on Groundwater Regulation (2016); Rural Water Supply Network: St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- UNICEF. UNICEF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual Report 2008; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Danert, K. Striving for Professionalism in Cost-Effective Boreholes (SPICE)-Phase IV, Progress Report 6: 1 September 2016–31 January 2017; Skat Foundation: St. Galen, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Cap-Net. Monitoring Impact: Professional Management of Water Well Drilling Projects and Programmes (2018); UNDP Cap-Net: Stockholm, Sweden, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Manual Drilling-A Global Perspective. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2Tu71BHS4k (accessed on 22 October 2020).
- UNICEF. Annual Results Report 2016; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Foster, S.; Furey, B.; Willets, J. Functionality of handpump water supplies: A review of data from sub-Saharan Africa and the Asia-Pacific region. Int. J. Water Resour. Stud. 2020, 36, 855–869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Phase | RWSN Professional Drilling/Manual Drilling Activity or Milestone | Year | Related Activity, Milestone or Outcome |
---|---|---|---|
n/a | 2003 |
| |
Foundation |
| 2004 | |
2005 | |||
| 2006 |
| |
I—Cost-effective boreholes | 2007 | ||
2008 | |||
II—Code of practice for cost-effective boreholes | 2009 | ||
| 2010 |
| |
II—Code of practice for cost-effective boreholes |
| 2011 |
|
| 2012 | ||
II—Code of practice for cost-effective boreholes | 2013 & 2014 | ||
III—Professional manual drilling | 2013 & 2014 |
| |
| 2015 | ||
IV—Professional drilling |
| 2015 | |
| 2016 |
| |
(VI and V) |
| 2017 | |
V—Strengthening UNICEF & Partner Capacity to Raise Professionalism of Drilling and Drilling Management | 2018 |
| |
2019 | |||
| 2020 |
|
No | Topic | Principle | Guidance |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Professional Drilling Enterprises and Consultants | Construction of drilled water wells and supervision is undertaken by professional and competent organisations which adhere to national standards and are regulated by the public sector. | Partly [54] |
2 | Siting | Appropriate siting practices are utilized and competently and scientifically carried out. | Yes [41] |
3 | Construction Method | The construction method chosen for the borehole is the most economical, considering the design and available techniques in-country. Drilling technology needs to match borehole designs. | Partly [12,72] |
4 | Procurement | Procurement procedures ensure that contracts are awarded to experienced and qualified consultants and drilling contractors. | Yes [52,53,100] |
5 | Design and Construction | The borehole design is cost-effective, designed to last for a lifespan of 20 to 50 years, and based on the minimum specification to provide a borehole which is fit for its intended purpose. | Yes [100] |
6 | Contract Management, Supervision and Payment | Adequate arrangements are in place to ensure proper contract management, supervision and timely payment of the drilling contractor. | Yes [52,53] |
7 | Data and Information | High quality hydrogeological and borehole construction data for each well is collected in a standard format and submitted to the relevant government authority. | Yes [100] |
8 | Database and Record Keeping | Storage of hydrogeological data is undertaken by a central Government institution with records updated and information made freely available and used in preparing subsequent drilling specifications. | |
9 | Monitoring | Regular visits to water users with completed boreholes are made to monitor functionality in the medium as well as long term with the findings published. |
Phase | Expenditure (CHF) 1 | Expenditure (USD) 2 | Notes/Source | Funders |
---|---|---|---|---|
Foundation (2004–2006) | ≈ 50,000 | 50,000 | Estimate—based on outputs | Water & Sanitation Programme (WSP) |
Phase I (2007–2008) | ≈ 65,000 | 50,000 | Estimate—based on outputs | Water & Sanitation Programme (WSP), UNICEF |
Phase II (2009–2014) | 327,000 | 50,000 | Skat Foundation accounts | UNICEF Programme Division (New York), USAID, Aqua for all, Skat Foundation/Skat Consulting AG, DFID/WASH Facility Sierra Leone |
Phase III (2013–2014) | 90,000 | 100,000 | Skat Foundation accounts | UNICEF and Skat Foundation/Skat Consulting AG |
Phase IV (2015–2017) | 200,000 | 220,000 | Skat Foundation accounts | UNICEF and Skat Foundation/Skat Consulting AG |
Phase V (2017–2020) | 270,000 | 280,000 | Skat Foundation accounts | UNICEF and Skat Foundation/Skat Consulting AG |
Total | ≈ 1,000,000 | ≈ 750,000 |
Topic 1 | Year | Webinar Title | Countries Included | Language 2 | Link |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PD | 2012 | Cost-effective boreholes | n/a | E | Not available |
MD | 2014 | Introduction to Manual Drilling and its Potential to Improve Rural Water Supplies | n/a | E/F | http://vimeo.com/86508528 |
MD | 2014 | Manual Drilling at Scale | Senegal, India & Bolivia | E/F | http://vimeo.com/87084964 |
MD | 2014 | Good practices in Manual Drilling Construction and Design | Nigeria, Madagascar & Kenya | E/F | http://vimeo.com/87747145 |
MD | 2014 | What do governments love and hate about manual drilling? | Guinea, Niger & Ethiopia | E/F | http://vimeo.com/88240563 |
MD | 2014 | Private Sector and NGO Experiences of Introducing and Developing Markets for Manual Drilling | Malawi, Sierra Leone & Zambia | E/F | http://vimeo.com/88864336 |
PD | 2014 | Groundwater Matters: Drinking Water for Rural People | Botswana | E | https://vimeo.com/87851165 |
MD | 2015 | Manual Drilling—a global perspective of local realities | See manual drilling compendium | E & F | https://vimeo.com/119421543 https://vimeo.com/119535178 |
PD | 2015 | Groundwater Governance (Kenya) | Kenya | E | https://vimeo.com/121992412 |
PD | 2015 | Effective Procurement & Contract Management of Borehole Construction | E & F | https://vimeo.com/123310467 https://vimeo.com/123322678 | |
PD | 2015 | Drilling supervision is no longer in fashion—the funders save, the users pay | E & F | https://vimeo.com/123839791 https://vimeo.com/123918873 | |
PD | 2015 | Boreholes that last for a lifetime | Mali | E & F | https://vimeo.com/142475788 https://vimeo.com/142373715 |
PD | 2015 | Overcoming the rural water supply scandal of handpump corrosion | E & F | https://vimeo.com/145485267 https://vimeo.com/145494726 | |
PD | 2015 | The magic and mystery of groundwater data | Uganda | E & F | https://vimeo.com/147584885 https://vimeo.com/147596997 |
PD | 2017 | Professional Water Well Drilling: Guidance for Ensuring Quality | Burkina Faso | E & F | https://vimeo.com/215145287 https://vimeo.com/215154161 |
PD | 2017 | Using groundwater in urban and slum areas: experiences from Africa | Nigeria & Uganda | E & F | https://vimeo.com/219979369 https://vimeo.com/219985403 |
PD | 2018 | Yes we can! Capacity Strengthening for Professional Drilling—Sharing Experiences from Southern Africa | Angola, Zambia Madagascar & Zimbabwe | E & P | https://vimeo.com/273842040 https://vimeo.com/273847798 |
PD | 2018 | A conversation about borehole drilling by private enterprises | Uganda | E | https://vimeo.com/336568174 |
Topic 1 | Year | Blog Title | Countries Included | Lang.2 | Author 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PD | 2020 | The need for professional associations for water well drillers | Angola, Burkina Faso, Mozambique Nigeria, USA | E | RM |
PD | 2020 | Ugandan drillers receive training at the Water Resources Institute | Uganda | E | TL |
PD | 2020 | Handpump corrosion and material quality: A challenge for Burkina Faso and globally | Burkina Faso | E & F | TL |
PD | 2019 | Just how much do countries rely on groundwater point sources for their drinking water? | Global | E | TL |
PD | 2019 | Understanding the invisible: Uganda’s efforts to increase access to detailed groundwater data | Uganda | E&F | RS |
MD | 2019 | An opportunity to reflect on manual drilling—UNESCO Seminar in Madrid, 2019 | n/a | E | TL |
PD/MD | 2019 | Integrity risks in professional borehole drilling: preventing corruption paves the way to sustainable infrastructure | n/a | E | RM |
PD | 2019 | Regulating the private sector | Uganda | E & F | R |
PD | 2019 | Attracting the best: Why some experienced consultants and drilling contractors are no longer willing to work for district local government | Uganda | E & F | R |
PD | 2019 | Turnkey contracts for borehole siting and drilling | Uganda | E & F | R |
PD | 2019 | Favouring Progress: Yemen’s Water Scarcity Dilemma of the 21st Century | Yemen | E | RM |
PD | 2018 | Borehole drilling supervision in Malawi: why it is essential, not optional | Malawi | E | RM |
PD | 2018 | Professional Water Wells Drilling: Country Assessments of the Sector | Angola, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, USA, Zambia | E | Theme leader |
PD | 2018 | Achieving Professional and Sustainable Drilling in Madagascar? Yes we can! | Madagascar | E | RM |
PD | 2018 | Voyage of groundwater discovery | n/a | E | TL |
PD | 2017 | Getting groundwater off the ground | n/a | E | TL |
PD | 2015 | A borehole that lasts for a lifetime | n/a | E | RS |
MD | 2015 | What is the big deal about manual drilling anyway? | several countries (see [72]) | E | TL |
PD/MD | 2015 | “Your challenges are out challenges”, reflections from Oklahoma, USA | n/a | E | TL |
PD | 2014 | Addressing failure in rural water supply in Africa—how can we all do better | n/a | E | RM |
MD | 2014 | Water Supply in Lagos and Nigeria—the importance of manual drilling | Nigeria | E | TL |
MD | 2014 | Manually Drilled Wells: Providing water in Nigeria’s Megacity of Lagos and beyond | Nigeria | E | TL |
MD | 2013 | Self-Supply at Scale: Lessons from rural Bangladesh | Bangladesh | E | RM |
PD | 2012 | Realities of water well drilling in Africa: e-discussion highlights so far | Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia | E | RM |
PD | 2012 | Boreholes and trees—why drilling supervision matters | n/a | E | RM |
Country | Manual Drilling | Professional Drilling |
---|---|---|
Angola | yes 2 | yes 6,7,8 |
Bangladesh | yes 1,3, | |
Benin | yes 2 | |
Bolivia | yes 1,3,5 | |
Burkina Faso | yes 6,7,(8) | |
Cameroon | yes 2 | yes 6 |
Central African Republic | yes 2 | yes 6 |
Chad | yes, 3,4 | |
Côte d’Ivoire | yes 2 | |
Democratic Republic of Congo | yes 1,4 | yes 6 |
Ethiopia | yes 1,3,5 | yes 7 |
Gambia | yes 1 | |
Ghana | yes 2 | yes 7 |
Guinea | yes 3,5 | |
Guinea Bissau | yes 1,5 | |
India | yes 3,5 | |
Kenya | yes 3,5 | yes 5 |
Liberia | yes 1,2 | |
Lao PDR | yes 1 | |
Madagascar | yes 1,3,4,5 | yes 6,(8) |
Malawi | yes 1,3 | yes 6,(8) |
Mali | yes 5,6 | |
Mauritania | yes 2 | |
Mozambique | yes 2 | yes 6,(7) |
Nicaragua | yes 2 | |
Niger | yes 1,3,4,5 | yes 6 |
Nigeria | Yes 4,5 | yes 6,(8) |
Nepal | yes 1,2 | |
Pakistan | yes 1 | |
Republic of Congo | yes 2 | |
Rwanda | yes 1,2 | |
Senegal | yes 1,3,5 | |
Sierra Leone | yes 3,4,5 | yes 6,7,8 |
South Africa | yes (8) | |
South Sudan | yes 2 | yes 6, |
Sudan | yes 1 | yes 6,(7) |
Tanzania | yes 1,2 | yes 7 |
Togo | yes 1,2 | |
Uganda | yes 1,3 | yes (8) |
Vietnam | yes 2 | |
Zambia | yes 1,3,5 | yes 6,7 |
Zimbabwe | yes 3,5 | yes (8) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Danert, K.; Adekile, D.; Canuto, J.G. Striving for Borehole Drilling Professionalism in Africa: A Review of a 16-Year Initiative through the Rural Water Supply Network from 2004 to 2020. Water 2020, 12, 3305. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123305
Danert K, Adekile D, Canuto JG. Striving for Borehole Drilling Professionalism in Africa: A Review of a 16-Year Initiative through the Rural Water Supply Network from 2004 to 2020. Water. 2020; 12(12):3305. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123305
Chicago/Turabian StyleDanert, Kerstin, Dotun Adekile, and Jose Gesti Canuto. 2020. "Striving for Borehole Drilling Professionalism in Africa: A Review of a 16-Year Initiative through the Rural Water Supply Network from 2004 to 2020" Water 12, no. 12: 3305. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123305
APA StyleDanert, K., Adekile, D., & Canuto, J. G. (2020). Striving for Borehole Drilling Professionalism in Africa: A Review of a 16-Year Initiative through the Rural Water Supply Network from 2004 to 2020. Water, 12(12), 3305. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123305