How Can We Make Pump and Treat Systems More Energetically Sustainable?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Technical Feasibility of Geothermal P&T Systems
2.1. Technical Solutions for the Geothermal Exploitation of P&T Systems
2.2. Expected Impacts on Water Treatment Processes
3. Potential Application to the Italian Contaminated Sites of National Interest (SIN)
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Heavy Metals | Hexavalent Chromium | Arsenic | Mercury | Cyanide | Corrosives | Volatile Organics | Ketones | Semivolatile Organics | Pesticides | PCBs | Dioxins | Floating Products | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Activated carbon | P | P | P | Y | N | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | P |
Air stripping | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N |
Biological | N | N | N | N | P | N | P | Y | Y | P | P | P | P |
Chemical Oxidation | N | N | P | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | P | N |
Coprecipitation/Coagulation | Y | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y |
Distillation | N | N | N | N | N | P | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Electrochemical | Y | Y | N | N | P | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N |
Evaporation | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | N | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y |
Filtration | Y | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | P |
Flotation | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y |
Gravity separation | Y | N | P | P | N | N | N | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y |
Ion exchange | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | P | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Membrane separation | Y | P | Y | P | Y | N | P | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Neutralization | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N |
Precipitation | Y | Y | P | Y | N | Y | N | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y |
Reduction | P | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N |
Steam stripping | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | P | N | N | N |
UV/Ozone | N | N | P | N | Y | N | P | P | Y | Y | Y | Y | N |
Appendix B
Appendix B.1. Different Thermal Uses of a P&T System—Cooling and Heating
- (1)
- Air-water chiller (Carrier 30 RQSY 100, see [50]) with a SEER = 4.26 in medium-temperature comfort applications (23–18 °C);
- (2)
- Free cooling system (Figure 1A) composed of a heat exchanger between the 23–18 °C radiant panel circuit and groundwater through a gasketed plate heat exchanger;
- (3)
- (4)
- GWHP with intermediate heat exchanger (Figure 1C). The same reversible heat pump of case 3, but the efficiency is reduced to SEER = 5.84, a reduction of 0.3, which could be considered as a reasonable estimate for a condensation temperature increase of 5 °C due to the intermediate heat exchanger.
- (5)
- Air-water chiller (Carrier 30 RQSY 100, see [50]) with a SCOP = 3.30 at typical radiant panel temperatures (30–35 °C);
- (6)
- (7)
- GWHP with intermediate heat exchanger (Figure 1C). The same reversible heat pump as case 3, but the efficiency is reduced to SEER = 5.79, a reduction of 0.3, which can be considered as a reasonable estimate for a condensation temperature increase of 5 °C due to the intermediate heat exchanger.
Appendix B.2. Different Thermal Use Schemes in an Air Stripping Unit (ASU)
- (A)
- heat discharge into contaminated water as a pre-heating before the air stripping treatment, thus avoiding (or reducing) further heat inputs to improve the stripping process;
- (B)
- heat recovery after the treatment, if water pre-heating is required for air stripping;
- (C)
- implementation of both the heat exchanges through a heat pump, i.e., extracting heat from the stripping column effluent (connected to the heat pump evaporator) to preheat groundwater before the air stripping with the heat delivered by the heat pump in the condensation phase.
Appendix C
# | Site Name | Region | Area (ha) | Description | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Porto Marghera (Venice) | Veneto | 1618 | Former and active petrochemical plants. | Groundwater drainage system (55 m3/h) installed with a treatment plant [56]. |
2 | Eastern Naples | Campania | 834 | Active and former industrial sites | Pumping + recharge wells to avoid saline intrusion [57]. |
3 | Gela | Sicily | 795 | Active petrochemical plants | Hydraulic barrier of 78 wells, with groundwater treatment plant, for a flow rate of 250 m3/h [58,59]. |
4 | Priolo | Sicily | 5814 | Active petrochemical plants | P&T active (600 m3/h) with sustainable reuse of treated waters [58,60]. |
5 | Manfredonia | Apulia | 216 | Former petrochemical plants and 3 landfills | P&T with reinjection wells on the boundary, low permeability aquifer, flow rate 120 m3/h [61]. |
6 | Brindisi | Apulia | 5851 | Chemical plants, coal power station | 5 P&T foreseen in the reclamation project for a total flow rate of 215 m3/h [62]. |
7 | Taranto | Apulia | 4383 | Steel and cement production, oil refining | Reclamation project still at early phases. Two P&T systems foreseen, with a total flow rate of 100 m3/h [63]. |
8 | Cengio and Saliceto | Liguria and Piedmont | 77 | Former chemical plant | P&T installed with a capacity of 600 m3/h [64]. |
9 | Piombino | Tuscany | 931 | Steel production plant | P&T with a flow rate of 11 m3/h [65]. |
10 | Massa and Carrara | Tuscany | 116 | Numerous industrial activities | P&T system with a flow rate of 160 m3/h [66]. |
11 | Casale Monferrato | Piedmont | 73,895 | Asbestos processing (Eternit) | Area contaminated by asbestos. No P&T foreseen. |
12 | Balangero | Piedmont | 314 | Former asbestos quarry | Area contaminated by asbestos. Quarry lake but no P&T foreseen. |
13 | Pieve Vergonte | Piedmont | 42 | Former chemical plant | P&T active (350–850 m3/day) with a foreseen expansion to 1250 m3/h [67,68]. |
14 | Sesto San Giovanni | Lombardy | 255 | Former steel processing plant | P&T active to remediate CAHs, flow rate 200 m3/h [69]. |
15 | Pioltello Rodano | Lombardy | 85 | Chemical and pharmaceutical industries | Groundwater remediation activities to be designed [70]. |
16 | Bagnoli (Naples) | Campania | 249 | Former steel and cement production plant, former asbestos processing plant | P&T foreseen, 270 m3/h [71]. |
17 | Tito | Basilicata | 315 | Former chemical plant | Hydraulic barrier with a capacity of 90 m3/h [72]. |
18 | Crotone, Cassano and Cerchiara | Calabria | 530 | Former metal working industries | P&T installed with a capacity of 88 m3/h [73]. |
19 | Fidenza | Emilia-Romagna | 25 | Former chemical industry | Hydraulic barrier with 3 wells. New settlement foreseen in the site [74]. |
20 | Torviscosa Caffaro | Friuli Venezia Giulia | 201 | Former chemical industry | Hydraulic barriers, flow rate of 47 m3/h [75]. |
21 | Trieste | Friuli Venezia Giulia | 506 | Steel production plant | Hydraulic barrier to be realized, with a capacity of 15 m3/h [76]. |
22 | Cogoleto Stoppani | Liguria | 45 | Chemical industry | 12 pumping wells (total flow rate 36 m3/h) for emergency dewatering [77]. |
23 | Fibronit Bari | Apulia | 15 | Asbestos processing | Asbestos contamination in groundwater [78] but no P&T implemented until now. |
24 | Sulcis, Iglesiente, Guspinese | Sardinia | 19,751 | Coal/bauxite mining areas and metal working/chemical industries | In Portovesme, 3 P&T systems, and another barrier of 61 wells is foreseen. Total flow rate: 514 m3/h [79]. |
25 | Biancavilla | Sicily | 330 | Asbestos-like mineral (fluoro-edenite) | No P&T foreseen. |
26 | Livorno | Tuscany | 206 | Oil refining | Hydraulic barrier with 42 wells [80]. |
27 | Terni Papigno | Umbria | 655 | Former and actual chemical, electric, textile, iron & steel industries | Heavy metals found in groundwater. A small P&T system was implemented in 2016 [54]. |
28 | Emarèse | Valle d’Aosta | 23 | Former asbestos minerals quarry | No P&T implemented or foreseen. |
29 | Northern Trento | Trento | 24 | PAH, aromatic solvents, phenols, Pb and Hg by former petrochemical industries | Hydraulic barrier and GW activated carbon treatment plant [81]. |
30 | Brescia Caffaro | Lombardy | 2109 | PCB, PAH, heavy metals | P&T systems in 2 sites (Oto Melara and Baratti) [75,82]. |
31 | Broni | Lombardy | 14 | Former asbestos cement industry | No P&T systems [83]. |
32 | Falconara Marittima | Marche | 105 | Former refinery and oil products storage. HC, PAH, heavy metals | Hydraulic barrier along coastline as urgent safety measure [84]. |
33 | Serravalle Scrivia | Piedmont | 74 | Former industry of oil, lubricants | Hydraulic containment foreseen by means of barrier wall. |
34 | Lakes of Mantua and chemical pole | Lombardy | 614 | PAH, organohalogen compounds, HC, heavy metals (esp. Hg) by former refineries, petrochemical industries | Hundreds of wells for hydraulic barrier [85]. |
35 | Orbetello (former SITOCO) | Tuscany | 204 | Former chemical industry released heavy metals, PCB, dioxin | 20 wells foreseen in 2009 for water table lowering, with a flow rate of 30 m3/h [86]. Hydraulic barrier for deep aquifer. |
36 | Porto Torres | Sardinia | 1874 | Petrochemical, chemical, engineering industry; storage tanks for oil products | P&T system (200 + 50 m3/h, see Ref. [56]) and other remediation techniques (MPE). Water disposal in the sea. |
37 | Basento valley | Basilicata | 3300 | Asbestos-like minerals and others | A P&T system foreseen with a flow rate of 90 m3/h [87]. |
38 | Milazzo | Sicily | 549 | Refineries and industrial district | P&T foreseen in one of the industrial site [54]. |
39 | Bussi | Abruzzo | 232 | Chlorinated solvents by former industrial sites and industrial landfills | P&T system active with a flow rate of 120 m3/h [88]. |
40 | Sacco river basin | Latium | ~7200 | Lindane and beta-esachlorocycloesane by former chemical industrial sites | Hydraulic barrier of 29 wells. |
41 | Train maintenance workshop of Bologna | Emilia-Romagna | n.a. | Asbestos-like minerals and others | Site characterization ongoing. |
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No. | Site | Flow Rate (m3/h) | Thermal Power, ΔT = 4 K (kW) | FLEH Heating (h/a) | FLEH Cooling (h/a) | Avoided GHG (Ton CO2 eq/a) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 | Brescia Caffaro | 1400 | 6496 | 2151 | 728 | 3001 |
13 | Pieve Vergonte | 1250 | 5800 | 2589 | 268 | 3224 |
4 | Priolo | 600 | 2784 | 1423 | 1011 | 851 |
8 | Cengio e Saliceto | 600 | 2784 | 2151 | 608 | 1286 |
24 | Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese | 514 | 2385 | 1424 | 921 | 729 |
32 | Falconara Marittima | 400 | 1856 | 1558 | 934 | 621 |
16 | Bagnoli | 270 | 1253 | 1394 | 968 | 375 |
2 | Napoli Orientale | 258 | 1197 | 1394 | 968 | 358 |
3 | Gela | 250 | 1160 | 1439 | 993 | 359 |
36 | Porto Torres | 250 | 1160 | 1470 | 920 | 366 |
6 | Brindisi | 215 | 998 | 1193 | 1208 | 256 |
14 | Sesto San Giovanni | 200 | 928 | 2202 | 751 | 439 |
10 | Massa e Carrara | 160 | 743 | 1752 | 634 | 280 |
5 | Manfredonia | 120 | 557 | 1419 | 1051 | 170 |
39 | Bussi sul Tirino | 120 | 557 | 2336 | 476 | 279 |
7 | Taranto | 100 | 464 | 1416 | 1050 | 141 |
17 | Tito | 90 | 418 | 2070 | 601 | 186 |
18 | Crotone | 88 | 408 | 1483 | 1109 | 130 |
1 | Marghera | 55 | 255 | 1958 | 909 | 107 |
20 | Torviscosa Caffaro | 47 | 218 | 1947 | 659 | 91 |
22 | Cogoleto Stoppani | 36 | 167 | 1912 | 642 | 69 |
29 | Trento Nord | 17 | 79 | 2784 | 138 | 47 |
9 | Piombino | 11 | 51 | 1253 | 962 | 14 |
TOTAL | 7051 | 32,718 | na | na | 13,378 |
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Casasso, A.; Tosco, T.; Bianco, C.; Bucci, A.; Sethi, R. How Can We Make Pump and Treat Systems More Energetically Sustainable? Water 2020, 12, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010067
Casasso A, Tosco T, Bianco C, Bucci A, Sethi R. How Can We Make Pump and Treat Systems More Energetically Sustainable? Water. 2020; 12(1):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010067
Chicago/Turabian StyleCasasso, Alessandro, Tiziana Tosco, Carlo Bianco, Arianna Bucci, and Rajandrea Sethi. 2020. "How Can We Make Pump and Treat Systems More Energetically Sustainable?" Water 12, no. 1: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010067