Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Considering the Impact of Electricity Generation Mix: A Case Study in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Relevant Data and Policy of EVs in China
2.1. Urgent Demand for Energy Conversion in the Transport Sector
2.2. Latest EV Policies in China
3. Methods and Data
3.1. Goal and Scope Definition
3.2. Vehicle Model
3.3. Functional Unit
3.4. Calculation Model
3.4.1. Electricity Carbon Intensity
3.4.2. Life Cycle Carbon Emission of the Vehicle
3.5. Life Cycle Inventory
3.5.1. Material Extraction and Processing
3.5.2. Vehicle Manufacturing
3.5.3. Vehicle Use
3.5.4. Vehicle Recycling
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Regional Electricity Carbon Intensity
4.2. Life Cycle Carbon Emission of Vehicles
4.3. Policy Recommendation
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Materials | BEV | ICEV |
---|---|---|
Vehicle Body | ||
Steel | 477.97 | 459.11 |
Iron | 4.92 | 9.84 |
Aluminum | 4.92 | 7.87 |
Copper | 13.36 | 7.21 |
Glass | 45.69 | 45.91 |
Plastic | 127.22 | 104.94 |
Rubber | 3.51 | 7.21 |
Others | 25.30 | 13.77 |
Chassis | ||
Steel | 303.19 | 353.45 |
Iron | 23.18 | 28.50 |
Aluminum | 3.31 | 4.25 |
Copper | 8.46 | 9.36 |
Plastic | 12.14 | 7.66 |
Rubber | 15.45 | 18.71 |
Others | 2.21 | 3.40 |
Transmission | ||
Steel | 23.76 | 25.47 |
Iron | 3.17 | 4.03 |
Aluminum | 12.67 | 11.58 |
Motor | ||
Steel | 22.39 | — |
Aliminum | 25.10 | — |
Copper | 10.55 | — |
Others | 6.31 | — |
Power electronics | ||
Steel | 3.38 | — |
Aluminum | 31.73 | — |
Copper | 5.55 | — |
Plastic | 16.10 | — |
Rubber | 2.50 | — |
Others | 8.39 | — |
LFP Battery | ||
LiFePO4 | 89.66 | — |
Graphite | 40.76 | — |
Steel | 4.08 | — |
Aluminum | 134.49 | — |
Copper | 36.68 | — |
Plastic | 28.53 | — |
Electrolyte | 40.76 | — |
Others | 32.60 | — |
Engine | ||
Steel | — | 13.44 |
Iron | — | 12.97 |
Aluminum | — | 79.84 |
Copper | — | 1.53 |
Plastic | — | 3.77 |
Rubber | — | 3.77 |
Others | — | 2.59 |
Engine Accessory | ||
Steel | — | 37.06 |
Iron | — | 10.60 |
Aluminum | — | 9.84 |
Copper | — | 0.68 |
Plastic | — | 22.39 |
Others | — | 4.24 |
Material | Energy Consumption (MJ/t) | Carbon Emission Factor (CO2 kg/kg) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coal | Crude Oil | Natural Gas | Coke | Electricity | ||
Steel | 21,000 | 1125 | 9378 | 11,118 | 2234 | 2.148 |
Iron | 296 | 1801 | 4216 | 2871 | 873 | 0.90 |
Aluminum | 57,404 | 3429 | 6088 | 0 | 31,946 | 6.536 |
Copper | 3702 | 7378 | 1294 | 559 | 3881 | 2.20 |
Glass | 5270 | 0 | 18,972 | 0 | 778 | 1.67 |
Plastic | 739 | 3796 | 17,392 | 0 | 2238 | 3.19 |
Rubber | 979 | 13,662 | 27,002 | 0 | 624 | 3.70 |
Others | 15,940 | 3602 | 10,655 | 1845 | 5175 | 2.70 |
Fuel | Lower Heat Value | Carbon Emission Factor (kg CO2/kJ) |
---|---|---|
Coal | 20.908 MJ/kg | 87.3 |
Coke | 28.435 MJ/kg | 95.7 |
Coke oven gas | 16.726 MJ/m3 | 37.3 |
Crude oil | 41.816 MJ/kg | 71.1 |
Gasoline | 43.070 MJ/kg | 67.5 |
Diesel | 42.652 MJ/kg | 72.6 |
Fuel oil | 41.816 MJ/kg | 75.5 |
Natural gas | 38.931 MJ/m3 | 54.3 |
Components | BEV | ICEV | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity (kWh) | Natural Gas (MJ) | Diesel (kg) | Electricity (kWh) | Natural Gas (MJ) | Diesel (kg) | |
Body and chassis | 9305.7 | — | — | 8809.5 | ||
Motor | 188.7 | 147.43 | 0.47 | — | — | — |
Power electronics | 60 | — | — | — | ||
Engine | — | — | — | 429.2 | ||
Engine accessory | 109.4 | |||||
Transmission | 98.25 | 162.96 | 0.09 | 197.1 | 423.3 | 0.21 |
Vehicle assembly | 3038.8 | 2671.7 |
Component | Energy Consumption (MJ/kWh) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Coal | Crude Oil | Natural Gas | |
Cathode | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.44 |
Anode | 0 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.54 |
Separator | 0 | 0.02 | 0 | 0.02 |
Electrolyte | 112.34 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Packaging | 2.4 | 23.4 | 0.56 | 33.2 |
BMS | 5.74 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Battery package | 147 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Power Grid Division | Region (Province and City) | Carbon Emission Factor of Thermal Power (kg CO2/kWh) |
---|---|---|
Western power grid | Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, Inner Mongolia | 0.9419 |
Northeastern power grid | Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang | 1.0826 |
Eastern power grid | Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian | 0.7921 |
Central power grid | Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Chongqing | 0.8587 |
Northwestern power grid | Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang | 0.8922 |
Southern power grid | Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan | 0.8042 |
Electricity Generation Types | Carbon Emission Factor (kg CO2/kWh) |
---|---|
Hydropower | 0.061 |
Solar power | 0.089 |
Wind power | 0.011 |
Nuclear | 0.078 |
Phases | BEV | ICEV | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity (kWh) | Natural Gas (m3) | Coal (kg) | Electricity (kWh) | Natural Gas (m3) | Coal (kg) | |
Vehicle assembly | 627.3 | 618.08 | ||||
Non-battery parts | 1114 | 9.13 | 9.79 | 1170.8 | 11.19 | 20.64 |
LFP battery | 62.26 | 1.33 | — | — | — |
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Policy Classification | Document | Policy Interpretation |
---|---|---|
Promotion | [39,40,41] |
|
Fiscal support | [42,43,44,45,46,47,48] |
|
Infrastructure support | [49,50] |
|
Charging price | [51] |
|
Technology support | [52,53,54,55] |
|
Vehicle score system | [56,57] |
|
BEV | ICEV | |
---|---|---|
Length (mm) | 4765 | 4675 |
Width (mm) | 1837 | 1770 |
Height (mm) | 1515 | 1480 |
Curb weight (kg) | 1650 | 1325 |
Electricity/Oil consumption per 100 km | 12.3 kWh | 6.2 L |
Engine displacement (L) | — | 1.5 |
Tank capacity (L) | — | 50 |
Max. engine power (kW) | — | 80 |
Max. motor power (kW) | 100 | — |
Battery type | LFP | — |
Battery capacity (kWh) | 57 | — |
Cruising range of battery (km) | 500 | — |
Charging efficiency | 90% | — |
Life Cycle Phases | Process | Data Sources |
---|---|---|
Material Extraction and Processing | Material composition | GREET model [65] |
Energy consumption of material production | GREET model [66,68,69] | |
Carbon emission factor of material production | GREET model [66,70,71] | |
Carbon emission factor of different types of energy | GREET model [72,73] | |
Vehicle Manufacturing | Energy consumption for the non-battery parts | GREET model |
Energy consumption for the battery | GREET model, Gabi database [74] | |
Vehicle Use | Regional electricity generation mix | [58,75] |
Carbon emission factor of different power sources | [24,58,76,77] | |
Carbon emission factor of fuel production | GREET model | |
Vehicle Recycling | Energy consumption for the non-battery parts | GREET model, Gabi database |
Energy consumption for the battery | GREET model, Gabi database [64,78] |
Region | Thermal Power | Hydropower | Solar Power | Wind Power | Nuclear | Electricity Generation (GWh) | Line Loss Rate | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beijing | 97.5% | 2.3% | 0.2% | 0 | 0 | 46,409 | 7.10% | National Bureau of Statistics [58,75] |
Heilongjiang | 86.2% | 2% | 0.6% | 11.2% | 0 | 111,191 | 4.92% | |
Jilin | 82.5% | 5.7% | 1.3% | 10.5% | 0 | 94,638 | 7.88% | |
Tianjin | 98.4% | 0 | 0.4% | 1.2% | 0 | 73,298 | 2.73% | |
Shandong | 92.5% | 0.1% | 0.8% | 2.9% | 3.7% | 589,722 | 5.27% | |
Shanxi | 90.5% | 1.7% | 2.0% | 5.8% | 0 | 336,167 | 3.68% | |
Hebei | 88.4% | 0.2% | 2.5% | 8.9% | 0 | 329,766 | 5.45% | |
Jiangxi | 88.2% | 6.5% | 2.7% | 2.6% | 0 | 13,759 | 9.73% | |
Liaoning | 73.8% | 1.4% | 0.7% | 7.7% | 16.4% | 207,294 | 3.72% | |
Inner Mongolia | 85.5% | 0.9% | 2.1% | 11.5% | 0 | 549,508 | 3.06% | |
Henan | 91.5% | 5.1% | 1.6% | 1.8% | 0 | 288,831 | 4.24% | |
Shaanxi | 87.8% | 6.5% | 2.4% | 3.3% | 0 | 21,932 | 3.40% | |
Shanghai | 98.8% | 0 | 0.1% | 1.1% | 0 | 82,213 | 3.58% | |
Anhui | 95.2% | 1.0% | 2.2% | 1.6% | 0 | 288,667 | 4.06% | |
Ningxia | 83.4% | 1.3% | 5.1% | 10.2% | 0 | 176,597 | 3.86% | |
Xinjiang | 79.2% | 7.0% | 2.8% | 11.0% | 0 | 367,049 | 2.89% | |
Jiangsu | 88.5% | 0.6% | 1.2% | 3.2% | 6.5% | 516,643 | 2.92% | |
Chongqing | 72.5% | 26% | 0.4% | 1.1% | 0 | 81,155 | 6.14% | |
Zhejiang | 74.4% | 4.8% | 1.2% | 0.8% | 18.8% | 353,765 | 5.28% | |
Guangdong | 70.8% | 3.9% | 0.5% | 1.5% | 23.3% | 505,102 | 6.43% | |
Hainan | 65.8% | 1.8% | 0.7% | 1.3% | 30.4% | 34,568 | 7.76% | |
Guizhou | 63.6% | 32% | 0.8% | 3.6% | 0 | 220,655 | 4.54% | |
Hunan | 60% | 35.1% | 0.6% | 4.3% | 0 | 155,942 | 3.46% | |
Gansu | 53.1% | 25.5% | 6.1% | 15.3% | 0 | 16,305 | 9.25% | |
Fujian | 58.4% | 12.3% | 0.1% | 3.3% | 25.9% | 257,796 | 6.65% | |
Guangxi | 56.5% | 30.4% | 0.4% | 3.1% | 9.6% | 184,627 | 3.52% | |
Hubei | 50.6% | 45.9% | 1.4% | 2.1% | 0 | 295,750 | 2.07% | |
Qinghai | 13.5% | 65.8% | 14.2% | 6.5% | 0 | 88,614 | 10.82% | |
Sichuan | 13.7% | 83.8% | 0.5% | 2.0% | 0 | 392,388 | 6.45% | |
Yunnan | 9.5% | 82% | 1% | 7.5% | 0 | 346,563 | 6.17% |
Region | Regional Electricity Carbon Intensity (kgCO2/kWh) | Region | Regional Electricity Carbon Intensity (kgCO2/kWh) | Region | Regional Electricity Carbon Intensity (kgCO2/kWh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beijing | 0.9902 | Henan | 0.8254 | Hainan | 0.6014 |
Heilongjiang | 0.9846 | Shaanxi | 0.8176 | Guizhou | 0.5574 |
Jilin | 0.9758 | Shanghai | 0.8119 | Hunan | 0.5569 |
Tianjin | 0.9533 | Anhui | 0.7888 | Gansu | 0.5470 |
Shandong | 0.9239 | Ningxia | 0.7806 | Fujian | 0.5257 |
Shanxi | 0.8886 | Xinjiang | 0.7359 | Guangxi | 0.4987 |
Hebei | 0.8842 | Jiangsu | 0.7292 | Hubei | 0.4738 |
Jiangxi | 0.8463 | Chongqing | 0.6807 | Qinghai | 0.1950 |
Liaoning | 0.8456 | Zhejiang | 0.6420 | Sichuan | 0.1811 |
Inner Mongolia | 0.8345 | Guangdong | 0.6311 | Yunnan | 0.1365 |
Region | CO2 Emission (t) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Material Extraction and Processing | Vehicle Manufacturing | Using Phase | Recycling | Total | ||||||
BEV | ICEV | BEV | ICEV | BEV | ICEV | BEV | ICEV | BEV | ICEV | |
Beijing | 6.281 | 3.380 | 17.308 | 12.121 | 20.299 | 24.903 | 1.826 | 1.833 | 45.714 | 42.237 |
Heilongjiang | 17.212 | 12.052 | 20.184 | 1.816 | 1.823 | 45.493 | 42.158 | |||
Jilin | 17.060 | 11.945 | 20.004 | 1.800 | 1.807 | 45.145 | 42.035 | |||
Tianjin | 16.673 | 11.670 | 19.543 | 1.759 | 1.767 | 44.256 | 41.720 | |||
Shandong | 16.166 | 11.311 | 18.940 | 1.706 | 1.714 | 43.093 | 41.308 | |||
Shanxi | 15.558 | 10.880 | 18.216 | 1.643 | 1.651 | 41.698 | 40.814 | |||
Hebei | 15.482 | 10.826 | 18.126 | 1.635 | 1.643 | 41.524 | 40.752 | |||
Jiangxi | 14.829 | 10.363 | 17.349 | 1.566 | 1.575 | 40.025 | 40.221 | |||
Liaoning | 14.817 | 10.354 | 17.335 | 1.565 | 1.574 | 39.998 | 40.211 | |||
Inner Mongolia | 14.625 | 10.219 | 17.107 | 1.545 | 1.554 | 39.558 | 40.056 | |||
Henan | 14.469 | 10.107 | 16.921 | 1.529 | 1.538 | 39.200 | 39.928 | |||
Shaanxi | 14.334 | 10.012 | 16.761 | 1.515 | 1.524 | 38.891 | 39.819 | |||
Shanghai | 14.236 | 9.943 | 16.644 | 1.504 | 1.514 | 38.665 | 39.740 | |||
Anhui | 13.838 | 9.660 | 16.170 | 1.463 | 1.472 | 37.752 | 39.415 | |||
Ningxia | 13.696 | 9.560 | 16.002 | 1.448 | 1.458 | 37.427 | 39.301 | |||
Xinjiang | 12.926 | 9.014 | 15.086 | 1.367 | 1.378 | 35.660 | 38.675 | |||
Jiangsu | 12.811 | 8.932 | 14.949 | 1.355 | 1.366 | 35.396 | 38.581 | |||
Chongqing | 11.975 | 8.340 | 13.954 | 1.268 | 1.279 | 33.478 | 37.902 | |||
Zhejiang | 11.308 | 7.867 | 13.161 | 1.198 | 1.210 | 31.948 | 37.360 | |||
Guangdong | 11.120 | 7.734 | 12.938 | 1.178 | 1.190 | 31.517 | 37.207 | |||
Hainan | 10.608 | 7.371 | 12.329 | 1.125 | 1.137 | 30.343 | 36.791 | |||
Guizhou | 9.850 | 6.833 | 11.427 | 1.045 | 1.058 | 28.603 | 36.174 | |||
Hunan | 9.842 | 6.827 | 11.416 | 1.044 | 1.058 | 28.583 | 36.168 | |||
Gansu | 9.671 | 6.706 | 11.214 | 1.027 | 1.040 | 28.193 | 36.029 | |||
Fujian | 9.304 | 6.446 | 10.777 | 0.988 | 1.002 | 27.350 | 35.731 | |||
Guangxi | 8.839 | 6.116 | 10.223 | 0.939 | 0.953 | 26.282 | 35.352 | |||
Hubei | 8.409 | 5.812 | 9.713 | 0.895 | 0.909 | 25.298 | 35.004 | |||
Qinghai | 3.605 | 2.406 | 3.998 | 0.392 | 0.410 | 14.276 | 31.099 | |||
Sichuan | 3.365 | 2.236 | 3.713 | 0.367 | 0.385 | 13.726 | 30.904 | |||
Yunnan | 2.597 | 1.691 | 2.798 | 0.286 | 0.306 | 11.962 | 30.280 |
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Tang, B.; Xu, Y.; Wang, M. Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Considering the Impact of Electricity Generation Mix: A Case Study in China. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020252
Tang B, Xu Y, Wang M. Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Considering the Impact of Electricity Generation Mix: A Case Study in China. Atmosphere. 2022; 13(2):252. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020252
Chicago/Turabian StyleTang, Bowen, Yi Xu, and Mingyang Wang. 2022. "Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Considering the Impact of Electricity Generation Mix: A Case Study in China" Atmosphere 13, no. 2: 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020252
APA StyleTang, B., Xu, Y., & Wang, M. (2022). Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Considering the Impact of Electricity Generation Mix: A Case Study in China. Atmosphere, 13(2), 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020252