Aerosols in Northern Morocco-2: Chemical Characterization and PMF Source Apportionment of Ambient PM2.5
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling and Aerosol Chemical Analyses
2.2. Aerosol Chemical Closure Methodology
- Sea salt component estimation:
- Inorganic ions:
- Carbonaceous fractions, BC and OC:
- POM calculation:
- Dust calculation:
2.3. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) Model
2.4. Settings and Diagnostics for a PMF Optimum Solution
3. Results
3.1. Aerosol Chemical Mass Closure
3.1.1. Overview of PM2.5 and Its Chemical Components
3.1.2. Mass Closure and Differences among PM Size Fractions
3.1.3. Seasonal Variability of the Reconstructed PM2.5 and PMcoarse
3.1.4. Non-Determined Mass
3.2. Source Apportionment of PM2.5: Source Profiles and Seasonal Variation
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Carbonaceous Species | Inorganic Ions | Organic Markers | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | BC | EC | Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl−, NO3−, SO42− | Oxalate | Levoglucosan, Glucose |
Uncertainties (µg/m3) | 0.15 | 0.40 | 0.05 | 0.01 | <0.001 |
Present Study | 14 Southern European Sites [58] | Barcelona (Spain) [57] | Bou-Ismail (Algeria) [11] | Montseny (Spain) [55] | Brindisi Harbor (Italy) [33] | Crete Island (Greece) [39] | Lisbon (Portugal) [8] | Marseille (France) [56] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
May 2011–Apr 2012 | 1996–2007 | 2003–2006 | 2012–2013 | 2018 | Jun–Oct 2012 | 26 Jul–23 Aug 2001 | 2001 | Jul 2011–Jul 2012 | |
Urban | Urban | Urban | Rural (Coastal) | Rural | Urban industrial | Background (150 m a.s.l) | Suburban | Urban background | |
PM2.5 | 17.96 | 3–35 | 29 | 12.3 | 5.55 | 16 | 17.41 | 14 | 19.6 |
Sea salt | 6 (1.14) | 6 | 2 (0.5) | 10 (1.36–2.53) | n.a. | 3(0.6) | (0.22) | 5.4 | 2.3 (0.33) |
Ammonium | 6 (1.09) | n.a. | 5 (1.4) | 5 (1.10) | 9 (0.50) | 16(2.8) | n.a. | 5.7 | 7.5 (1.5) |
Nitrate | 6 (1.04) | 7 | 9 (2.7) | 4 (1.02) | 10 (n.a.) | 2(0.3) | (0.07) | 6.4 | 8.5 (1.7) |
Sulfate | 17 (2.99) | 15 | 16 (4.6) | 25 (3.09) * | 19 (1.11) ** | 20(3.6) ** | n.a. | 18 | 10.9 (2.2) * |
SIA | 28 (5.05) | n.a. | 30 (8.7) | 34 (5.03) | 38 (n.a.) | 38 (6.7) | (8.06) | 30.1 | 27 (5.4) |
POM | 34 (6.04) | 23 | (9) | 50 (1.74) | 50 (2.83) | 33 (6) | (6.13) *** | 30 | 42 (8.6) |
Mineral dust | 9 (1.65) | 11 | 16 (4.8) | 7 (1.52) | 7 (0.38) | 22 (4) | (0.54) | 8.7 | 19 (n.a.) |
BC | 18 (3.24) | 8 | (2.3) | 6 (0.83) | 3 (0.15) | 3 (0.5) | (1.18) | 6.8–18 | 10 (1.8) |
n.d. | 4 (0.75) | - | 18 (5.3) | - | - | 1 (0.2) | (1.02) | n.a. | n.a. |
Location | Type | Study Period | Ca2+-to-Dust Conversion Factor, f | OC-to-POM Conversion Factor, k | Reference | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
f | Intercept, b | r2 | n | % Coarse Closure * | r2 | n | k | % Fine Closure ** | r2 | n | ||||
Tetouan, Morocco | Urban | May 2011–Apr 2012 | 0.229 | +1.04 | 0.52 | 41 | 111.8 | 0.96 | 51 | 1.20 | 95.6 | 0.97 | 84 | This work |
Paris, France | Urban | Jun 2004–Jul 2005 | 0.150 | +0.39 | 0.67 | 20 | 99.7 | 0.78 | 20 | 1.40 | 99.1 | 0.89 | 25 | [16] |
Florence, Italy | Urban | Jul 2002–Jun 2003 | 0.120 | +0.33 | 0.56 | 44 | 99.6 | 0.73 | 46 | 1.50 | 97.9 | 0.85 | 41 | [16] |
Gonesse, France | Peri-urban | Sept 2004–Jul 2005 | 0.072 | +0.19 | 0.90 | 26 | 99.3 | 0.77 | 26 | 1.60 | 98.7 | 0.86 | 30 | [16] |
Beijing, China | Urban | 9–27 Aug 2004 | 0.069–0.085 | +0.007–+0.77 | 0.79–0.98 | 10–27 | 99.4–106.7 | 0.88–0.96 | 11–24 | 1.50–1.70 | 99.0–99.9 | 0.87–0.99 | 12–27 | [16] |
Beijing, China | Urban | 10–31 Jan 2003 | 0.055–0.082 | +0.43–+1.07 | 0.78–0.94 | 14–29 | 97.5–99.8 | 0.85–0.95 | 20–28 | 1.55–1.85 | 99.2–99.6 | 0.85–0.96 | 19–28 | [16] |
Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire | Urban | Wet season (2015, 2016) | 0.015–0.15 | 0.9 | - | - | - | - | 1.8 *** | - | - | - | [59] | |
Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire | Urban | Dry season (2016, 2017) | 0.006–0.07 | - | 0.9 | - | 1.8 *** | [59] | ||||||
Athens, Greece | Urban | 16 Mar–19 Apr 2010 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.8 | 73 | - | 15 | [60] |
Factor | Identified Factors | Specific Tracers |
---|---|---|
1 | Ammonium sulfate | SO42−, NH4+, K+, NO3− |
2 | Road traffic and biomass burning | OC, BC |
3 | Fresh sea salt | Cl−, K+, NO3− |
4 | Aged sea salt | Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ |
5 | Oxalate-rich factors | Oxalate, NO3− |
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Benchrif, A.; Tahri, M.; Guinot, B.; Chakir, E.M.; Zahry, F.; Bagdhad, B.; Bounakhla, M.; Cachier, H.; Costabile, F. Aerosols in Northern Morocco-2: Chemical Characterization and PMF Source Apportionment of Ambient PM2.5. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 1701. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101701
Benchrif A, Tahri M, Guinot B, Chakir EM, Zahry F, Bagdhad B, Bounakhla M, Cachier H, Costabile F. Aerosols in Northern Morocco-2: Chemical Characterization and PMF Source Apportionment of Ambient PM2.5. Atmosphere. 2022; 13(10):1701. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101701
Chicago/Turabian StyleBenchrif, Abdelfettah, Mounia Tahri, Benjamin Guinot, El Mahjoub Chakir, Fatiha Zahry, Bouamar Bagdhad, Moussa Bounakhla, Hélène Cachier, and Francesca Costabile. 2022. "Aerosols in Northern Morocco-2: Chemical Characterization and PMF Source Apportionment of Ambient PM2.5" Atmosphere 13, no. 10: 1701. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101701