Review of Alternative Management Options of Vegetable Crop Residues to Reduce Nitrate Leaching in Intensive Vegetable Rotations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Harvested Production [1000 ton] | EU | Climate Zones in the European Union | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Atlantic | Mediterranean | Continental | ||
Cauliflower & Broccoli | 2249 | 1141 | 1064 | 44 |
White Cabbage | 3557 | 2120 | 661 | 777 |
Celery | 274 | 59 | 114 | 101 |
Leek | 848 | 670 | 174 | 3 |
Lettuce | 2320 | 895 | 1373 | 52 |
Spinach | 514 | 317 | 196 | 1 |
Total | 9761 | 5201 | 3582 | 978 |
Crop Residues | Fresh Matter (ton ha−1) | N Content (kg N ha−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Cabbage | NR | 115 | [11] |
Cabbage | 40–60 | 170–200 | [24] |
Cauliflower | NR | 111 | [25] |
Cauliflower | 30–50 | 150 | [24] |
Cauliflower | NR | 193 | [10] |
Cauliflower | NR | 92–128 | [26] |
Cauliflower | NR | 110–200 | [19] |
Brussels Sprouts | NR | 138 | [11] |
Brussels Sprouts | 50–70 | 140–240 | [27] |
Broccoli | NR | 76–304 | [28] |
Leek | NR | 54 | [11] |
Celery | NR | 25–60 | [29] |
1.1. Vegetable Crop Residue Composition
1.2. Contribution to Soil Quality
2. In Situ Management Options
2.1. Leave Crop Residues Intact on the Field
2.2. N-Immobilizing Materials
2.3. Winter Catch Crops
- Fast developing rooting system: temperate climates in Europe are often characterized by high precipitation and rapid leaching of nitrate. Rapid root growth may mitigate downward movement of nitrogen to deeper soil layers (e.g., Italian ryegrass, oats).
- Deep rooting system: many vegetable crops have a shallow rooting system (e.g., cauliflower, leek) and are incapable to take up N from deeper soil layers. The rooting system of crucifers grows deeper than roots of cereals and allows scavenging of nitrates from deep soil layers [113].
- Winter hardiness: the catch crops should be able to survive frost to avoid N losses from catch crop biomass (e.g., winter rye, Italian ryegrass, triticale).
2.4. Intercropping of Catch Crops
3. Removal of Vegetable Crop Residues
Method | Main Crop | Specifics | Soil Texture | Δ N Leaching % | Δ N Balance % | Δ Soil Nmin % | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crop Residue Removal | Cauliflower | 20% removal | Loamy sand | −8 | −76 | [119] | |
Broccoli | Contribution of the crop residues to total N leaching | Sand | −35 to −60 | [70] | |||
Leek | Contribution of the crop residues to total N leaching | Sand | −20 to −35 | [70] | |||
No Incorporation | Broccoli | Leave crop residue on the soil surface | Sand | −15 to −20 | [70] | ||
Leek | Leave crop residue on the soil surface | Sand | 0 to +15 | [70] | |||
N-Immobilizing Materials | Cauliflower | Green waste compost at 5 Mg C ha−1 | Sandy loam | −27 | [4] | ||
Cauliflower | Wheat straw at 5 Mg C ha−1 | Sandy loam | −24 | [4] | |||
Cauliflower | Sawdust at 5 Mg C ha−1 | Sandy loam | −18 | [4] | |||
Cauliflower | Compacter waste at 3.6 Mg C ha−1 | Sandy loam | −30 | [78] | |||
Winter Catch Crops | Cauliflower | Fodder radish | Sand, sandy clay loam, silty loam | −14 | [10] | ||
Cauliflower | Sudangrass | Sand, sandy clay loam, silty loam | −8 | [10] | |||
Sugar beet * | Radish | Silt | −59 | [120] | |||
Sugar beet * | Winter rye | Sandy loam | −40 | [101] | |||
Intercropping | Leek | Chicory in interrow spacing of 0.75 m | Sandy loam | −50 | [115] | ||
Carrots, onion, Lettuce, white cabbage | Winter rye, green manure | Sandy loam | −44 | [71] |
4. Valorization of Vegetable Crop Residues
4.1. Composting
4.1.1. N Losses Related to Composting
Parameterr | VFG Compost | Digestate | Silage | Fresh Vegetable Crop Residues | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DM | %/FM | 70.1–71.9 | 1.5–13.5 | 16.1–19.2 | 8.3–22.1 |
OM | %/DM | 39.1–39.2 | 63.8–75 | 83.7–90.7 | 38–76 |
Total N | %/DM | 1.9–2.1 | 3.1–14 | 2.2–2.8 | 0.9–3.9 |
NH4-N/Total N | %/ total N | 16 | 44–81 | 16–31 | NR |
C:N | 10.2–10.9 | 3.5–8.5 | 19–23 | 10–25 | |
N:P | 4.2–4.7 | 5–8 | NR | 3.3–12.5 | |
Total P | %/DM | 0.5 | 0.6–1.7 | NR | NR |
pH | NR | 7.3–9.0 | 3.59–4.27 | NR | |
References | [140,141] | [142] | [143] | [3,4,9,32] |
4.1.2. Contribution to Soil Quality
4.2. Anaerobic Co-Digestion
4.2.1. N Losses Related to Anaerobic Digestion
4.2.2. Energetic Valorization
4.3. Ensilage
4.4. Potential Bottlenecks for Removal and Valorization
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Agneessens, L.; De Waele, J.; De Neve, S. Review of Alternative Management Options of Vegetable Crop Residues to Reduce Nitrate Leaching in Intensive Vegetable Rotations. Agronomy 2014, 4, 529-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy4040529
Agneessens L, De Waele J, De Neve S. Review of Alternative Management Options of Vegetable Crop Residues to Reduce Nitrate Leaching in Intensive Vegetable Rotations. Agronomy. 2014; 4(4):529-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy4040529
Chicago/Turabian StyleAgneessens, Laura, Jeroen De Waele, and Stefaan De Neve. 2014. "Review of Alternative Management Options of Vegetable Crop Residues to Reduce Nitrate Leaching in Intensive Vegetable Rotations" Agronomy 4, no. 4: 529-555. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy4040529