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Article

Parental Origin Influences Seed Quality and Seedling Establishment in Kiwifruit Cultivars

by
Edgar Manuel Bovio-Zenteno
1,2,
Benito Hernández-Castellanos
3,
Alejandro Antonio Castro-Luna
1,
Norma Flores-Estévez
1,
Juan Guillermo Cruz-Castillo
4,* and
Juan Carlos Noa-Carrazana
1,*
1
Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada (INBIOTECA), Universidad Veracruzana, Av. Culturas Veracruzanas 101, Col. E. Zapata, Xalapa 91090, Veracruz, Mexico
2
Lushan Botanical Garden, Jiangxi Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiujiang 332900, China
3
Facultad de Biología, Universidad Veracruzana, Circuito Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán s/n, Zona Universitaria, Xalapa 91090, Veracruz, Mexico
4
Centro Académico Regional Oriente (CARO), Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Km 6.2 Carretera Huatusco-Xalapa, Huatusco 94100, Veracruz, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2201; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092201
Submission received: 26 July 2025 / Revised: 17 August 2025 / Accepted: 15 September 2025 / Published: 16 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Production: Physiology, Breeding and Sustainability)
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Abstract

Kiwifruit (Actinidia Lindl.) cultivation is restricted to climates similar to its native habitat in China. The seeds, a product of sexual reproduction, are used to produce rootstocks in commercial plantations, being an important source of genetic diversity for adaptation to variable conditions and emerging challenges. It is known that obtaining kiwifruit plants from seeds is difficult due to their characteristic dormancy. However, the effect of habitat and parents on seed characteristics and their relationship to the seedlings produced is unknown. Here, we show that plants with tolerance to extreme conditions provide advantages to their offspring. We point out that Actinidia arguta cv. Passion Poppers (kiwiberry), capable of tolerating extreme temperatures below zero, has a larger seed size (volume over 15 mm3) and weight (100 seeds weigh nearly 200 mg), greater germination capacity (90.75 ± 1.03), and more robust seedlings (quotient of 20.28 ± 0.75) than classic green and golden kiwifruits, and one tropicalized commercial kiwifruit from Veracruz, Mexico. These findings highlight that parental origin influences seed quality and seedling establishment. We noted that A. arguta seeds offer opportunities for mass plant propagation. In addition, the use of parental plants adapted to extreme conditions could be an effective strategy to improve seed and seedling quality, with factors such as long-term survival and development in new environments awaiting to be explored in extent.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Kiwifruit is a temperate fruit vine domesticated in the twentieth century, which over the years has increased its presence in global markets through fruits with novel characteristics for consumers [1]. The commercial success of kiwifruit is a result of its integration into human lives, supported by its inherent sensory and nutritional properties [2]. These plants, members of the genus Actinidia [1,3], are native to Asia, where China is considered the centre of origin and diversification [4]. Thanks to the beginning of kiwifruit cultivation in New Zealand [1], the fruit became popular throughout the world, and several countries soon adopted its cultivation. For this reason, kiwifruit has undergone relocation processes that have allowed it to occupy environments where the climatic and soil characteristics favour its establishment [5].
Kiwifruit vines have demonstrated extensive plasticity, bringing opportunities for the establishment of orchards in different countries with potential locations outside their natural distribution [6,7,8]. For instance, in Mexico, where kiwifruit is imported and economically disadvantaged groups cannot afford them [9], the wide diversity of climatic regions, including temperate areas located around the main mountains [10], has permitted pioneer cultivation efforts in Veracruz, a territory with potential for kiwifruit insertion [11], where successful fruiting has been reported in the highland tropics [9,12].
In commercial kiwifruit plantations, fruit quality is maintained through plant cloning by cuttings, micropropagation, or grafting [3,13]. Therefore, rootstocks with good genetic variability, capable of coping with climatic conditions, soil, and emerging diseases, are required. Obtaining plants from seed plays a fundamental role in the selection of the rootstock. In kiwifruit, obtaining seedlings can be tricky due to the dormancy and unique characteristics of the seeds [14]. In A. chinensis var deliciosa, it has been shown that cold-wet stratification generates satisfactory results at temperatures between 2 °C and 5 °C with subsequent light and dark cycles with alternating temperatures [15]. It has also been observed that different genotypes respond differentially to specific stratification conditions [16].
The gibberellic acid (GA3) used in kiwifruit seeds has yielded satisfactory results in breaking dormancy without the need for stratification [17,18]. Within a certain range, the higher the concentration of GA3, the higher the germination rate in dark conditions for kiwifruit seeds disinfected with 10% sodium hypochlorite [19]. However, in A. chinensis var. chinensis from Veracruz, after stratification at 4 °C, concentrations between 1000 and 6000 ppm were not as important as a constant temperature of 25 °C, which promoted better results in all GA3 concentrations [20]. At this point, it is worth noting that not all kiwifruit species respond in the same way to pre-germination treatments, as not all have the same type of dormancy. In temperate kiwifruit, GA3 with clipping (removal of a portion of the seed to allow water to enter) is the most effective treatment, while in chilly weather, clipping stratification is more effective [14].
Seed size and weight have an influence on germination and seedling establishment in many wild and cultivated species [21,22]. When plants of the same clade have members that inhabit difficult climates, there is a tendency towards larger seeds among other strategies suitable for the harsh environment [23,24]. In the genus Actinidia, there are species adapted to warm, temperate climates (A. chinensis var. chinensis and A. chinensis var. deliciosa) and to cold climates (A. arguta), distributed across different altitudinal gradients. The best-known kiwifruits are from the distribution range from temperate to cold climates [25,26], where A. arguta is exceptionally tolerant to cold; plants of this species can withstand winters with temperatures as low as −40 °C [27]. Moreover, in kiwifruit plants, ploidy plays a fundamental role in terms of adaptability and has been related to two fundamental aspects for the success of plants. First, it is estimated that kiwifruit plants that inhabit cold climates tend to have a higher level of ploidy than their relatives in more temperate or warm climates [25,26]. Second, hybridization has been pointed out as a risk factor to produce quality fruits and seeds due to the interploidy crossbreeding [28]. However, it is a niche that seeks to be used for the generation of fruits with novel characteristics [29].
Currently, most of the research on kiwifruit is aimed at the production and improvement of the fruit. However, research is still pending from an ecological point of view, which will bring innovative approaches to the domestication of kiwifruit and the ability to cultivate it in more countries. We know that dormancy in seeds is one of the main difficulties for propagation in this crop and that most germination protocols focus on A. chinensis var. deliciosa. Therefore, understanding the seeds and their differences with respect to their origin is a way to know the history behind the adaptations and to develop breeding strategies that increase the quality of seeds and plants, reinforcing cultivar development.
In the present work, we compare kiwifruit seeds from different origins through biometric parameters of seeds and seedling quality. We hypothesized that larger and heavier seeds must be advantageous for the establishment of offspring in extreme environments. We predicted that the Pennsylvania kiwiberry (A. arguta cv. Passion Poppers) would have larger seeds, which would reflect greater viability, germination capacity, and post-germination growth compared to the rest of the kiwifruit studied.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

To obtain seeds, we used four types of commercial kiwifruits (12 fruits each) (Table 1). At the time of purchase, the fruits were in cold storage at the supermarket.
The fruits selected were soft to the touch as an indicator of ripeness. The seeds were extracted with a knife by cutting the fruit lengthwise and collecting them by scraping and rinsing under running water. They were dried in the shade and stored in glass jars at room temperature in the dark, with this last step, we removed the stratification factor given within the fruit. We obtained the seeds in September 2023 and used them in December 2023.

2.2. Determination of Seed Volume and Weight

To check if there was a difference between the weight and volume of the kiwifruit seeds, we measured them with a digital vernier (INSIZE, SKU: 1108-150, Suzhou New District, China) and calculated the ellipsoid volume of 60 seeds using Equation (1). The data complied with the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity. For weighing, 10 groups of 100 seeds (10 replicates) were used and weighed with an electronic balance (RADWAG, AS 220/C/2, Radom, Poland).
V = 4 / 3 × π × l × D 1 × D 2
where V is the volume of the seed (mm3), l is the length of the seed (mm), D1 is the largest diameter (mm), and D2 is the smallest diameter (mm).

2.3. Determination of Physiological Quality by Tetrazolium

100 seeds of each type of kiwifruit were soaked in distilled water for 48 h to soften them, and then divided in half lengthwise with a scalpel. Once the embryos were exposed, 1% tetrazolium solution was added and incubated at 30 °C for 24 h. The staining under a stereoscopic microscope was counted. The embryos that showed a bright red colour were viable. The experiment was performed with five groups of 20 seeds (five replicates) [Equation (2)] [30,31,32].
V i   ( % ) = 100 × R / S
where Vi (%) is the percentage of viability of the seeds, R is the number of red embryos, and S is the total number of seeds.

2.4. Seed Germination

The seeds were washed with 5% sodium hypochlorite. They were soaked for 10 min and rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. Four groups of 100 seeds were formed (four replicas) for each type of kiwifruit. Then, the seeds were treated with a 2000 ppm solution of gibberellic acid (GA3) for 24 h [17]. Afterwards, these were rinsed and placed in Petri dishes with Whatman No.1 filter paper moistened with 7 mL of sterile distilled water. The stratification was for 25 days at 4 °C in total darkness [15] in a climatic chamber (ECOSHEL, C1000D, Pharr, TX, USA) with alternating temperatures: 20 °C (12 h darkness)/30 °C (12 h light at 5500 lx) and constant humidity of 75% for six cycles. At the end of the cycles, the chamber had a temperature of 25 °C, continuous light at 5500 lx, and relative humidity of 75% [15,33].
The germination was monitored for 40 days for the cumulative daily count of germinated seeds. The germination capacity [Equation (3)], the mean germination time [Equation (4)] [18,34], the germination rate [Equation (5)], and latency time (T0) [Equation (6)] were calculated. Germination was when seeds had at least 1 mm of radicle. The ungerminated seeds were verified through the tetrazolium test, obtaining the viability of the remaining seeds [Equation (2)] [35].
C G   ( % ) = 100 × G / S
where CG (%) is the germination capacity of the seeds, G is the total number of seeds germinated, and S is the total number of seeds.
T 50 = ∑ i = 1 n G × T / ∑ i = 1 n G
where T50 is the mean germination time, G is the number of seeds germinated on the i-th day, T is the number of days from the beginning of the experiment to the i-th observation, and n is the last day of observation.
V G = ∑ G i / T
where VG is the germination rate, Gi is the number of seeds germinated on the i-th day, and T is the number of days of germination from the beginning of the experiment to the germination of the last seed.
T 0 = ∑ i = 1 g T
where T0 is the latency time, T is the elapsed days, and g is the day where the germination of the first seed is observed.

2.5. Seedling Comparison After Germination

At the end of the 40 days of germination, the seedlings were established on trays inside the climatic chamber. The tray wells had soil + peat + humus + perlite (1:1:1:1) [36]. The climatic chamber had alternating temperatures 20 °C (12 h of darkness)/30 °C (12 h of light at 5500 lx) and constant humidity of 75%, until the seedlings developed two true leaves (30 days).
Data on stem length (mm), neck diameter (mm), root length (mm), robustness quotient [Equation (7)], fresh weight (g), and dry weight (g) were recorded on 30 seedlings of each type of kiwifruit with a digital vernier (INSIZE, SKU: 1108-150, Suzhou New District, China). The dry weight was obtained by dehydrating the material in a digital incubator (50 L, LUZEREN, Jalisco, México) at 65 °C for 72 h and weighing on an electronic balance (AS 220/C/2, RADWAG, Radom, Poland) [37]. The vigour index [Equation (8)] [38] was calculated as follows:
C R = L T / D M
where CR is the ratio of robust, LT is the length of the stem, and DM is the diameter at the height of the neck.
I V = C G / P S
where IV is the vigour index, CG is the average germination capacity of the seeds, and PS is the dry weight of the seedling.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The volume, weight, viability, and germination data of the seeds were processed in the GraphPad Prism software (version 8.0.1 for Windows). The differences between kiwifruits were evaluated with one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc analysis (p < 0.05). The differences between the viability of the percentage of non-germinated seeds were assessed with the Brown–Forsythe ANOVA test and Tamhane’s post hoc T2 analysis (p < 0.05). The data were processed with the R programme (version 4.3.1) using generalized linear models (GLM), following a gamma error distribution and the identity link function (p < 0.05) [39].

3. Results

3.1. Seed Volume and Weight

There is a variation in the volume of seeds between kiwifruit of different origins (F3,236 = 126.1, p < 0.0001). AAP had larger seeds compared to the rest of the kiwifruit, with ACG being the one with the lowest volume (Figure 1).
Similarly, we found significant differences (F3,36 = 363.5, p < 0.0001) in seed weight, where AAP had the highest seed weight compared to the rest of the kiwifruit, with ACG being the one with the lowest weight. ADH was placed intermediate between the weight of ACG and ACS, showing no differences from either of the latter (Figure 2).

3.2. Seed Viability

There were no significant differences (F3,16 = 1.994, p = 0.1555) between the viability of the kiwifruit seeds evaluated prior to the start of the germination experiment (Figure 3). During the monitoring of the germination process, we found significant differences in latency time (F3,12 = 13.15, p = 0.0004), germination speed (F3,12 = 12.83, p = 0.0005), and germination capacity (F3,12 = 108.5, p < 0.0001). In contrast, there were no significant differences in the mean germination time (F3,12 = 1.137, p = 0.3733).

3.3. Germination Assessment

The lowest latency time was recorded for kiwifruit ACG and AAP, germinating in less than 7 days. The germination rate was highest for AAP and ADH. In addition, AAP achieved germination of around 90%, surpassing ADH’s 82% germination capacity (Table 2).
The germination curves for each type of kiwifruit showed a trend of germination, with a shared mean germination time (Figure 4).
Significant differences were evident, with AAP reaching the highest germination percentage, followed by ADH. The seeds derived from ACG and ACS exhibited similar germination percentages, but ACG is slightly higher than ACS. Although none of the kiwifruit types reached 100% germination, the viability analysis in non-germinated seeds found significant differences (F3,6 = 28.11, p = 0.0005). Kiwifruit AAP obtained the highest percentage of viable seeds and the lowest percentage of ungerminated seeds (Figure 5).

3.4. Seedling Evaluation

There were significant differences in stem length, diameter at neck height, fresh weight, dry weight, robustness quotient, and vigour index among kiwifruit types. In the length of the longest root, no significant differences were observed. AAP showed the highest values in stem length and robust ratio, while AAP and ADH achieved the best values in neck diameter, fresh weight, and dry weight. Likewise, these kiwifruits showed the highest vigour indices (Table 3).

4. Discussion

Kiwifruit vines produce fruits of great economic importance in the global market. These plants rely on sexual propagation by seeds to maintain genetic variability, but their germination is not an easy task, with most of the available information dedicated to the green kiwifruit A. chinensis var deliciosa. Therefore, we addressed the issue of seeds and seedlings produced by plants from different origins. In our study, the largest seeds (bulky and heavy) belonged to AAP and the smaller ones belonged to ACG.
Although no previous studies were found addressing biometrical differences in ecological fitness in kiwifruit, our data suggest clear divergences between seeds produced by the four cultivars. Large seeds in AAP favour germination and seedling robustness in comparison with the smaller-seeded kiwifruits tested, which is congruent with functional significance of seed mass and seed persistence, later affecting seedling establishment performance [40,41]. The parents influence the size and weight characteristics of the seeds [23,42], especially under extreme climate conditions and difficult environments [42,43]. For example, in Heterozostera nigricaulis, a seagrass, large and heavy seeds are an adaptive advantage, having good germination performance and permanence in the seed bank [23]. AAP belongs to A. arguta species, known for their higher latitudinal distribution and –40° C tolerance [4]. Thus, we suppose that this increase in size is associated with the permanence in the seed bank, waiting for favourable milder-season conditions, where the seedling would benefit from a nutritional advantage for successful establishment granted by the seed’s nutrient reserves [44]. For instance, Krascheninnikovia lanata, a plant that also has sub-zero temperature tolerance, benefits from larger seeds to germinate in cold environments, associated with increased reserves of sugars [45].
Opposing results were observed in ACG, where seeds may be smaller due to the characteristics of the unfamiliar environment in the highland tropics of Veracruz, via effects of heat stress and drought during seed filling [46], or due to hybridization during cultivar development. It has already been mentioned that in Actinidia spp. seeds undergo modifications through intra- and interspecific crossing, where interploidy pollination can occur [47,48]. In this case, it has been observed that hybridization between females of A. chinensis var. delicious (hexaploid) and A. chinensis var. chinensis (diploid), and vice versa generates abnormalities, low quantity, and reduced seed weight [28,49]. Overall, positive or negative changes occurring during seed development responds mainly to the parental genetical shifts in relation with the environment, which we could observe as differential seed characteristics. However, further research uncovering seed reserve substances and genetic profiles will enrich the understanding of the findings stated in this paper.
With the tetrazolium test, around 80% of the seeds were determined viable, close to previous reports on Hayward kiwifruit [31,50]. Thus, all the seeds have the same potential to germinate if their dormancy break requirements are met. It is common that in dormant seeds of kiwifruit, the tetrazolium viability test overestimates the actual germination capacity [51]. However, our results showed germination within the viability range obtained for all kiwifruits (Table 2), supporting the feasibility of the test. The proportions of dormant seeds vary, as well as the requirements to break dormancy [14]. We found this in the viability test of non-germinated seeds. For example, AAP was the closest to 100% viability. Also, ACG and ACS had a higher percentage of non-germinated seeds and a high percentage of viable seeds. The germination protocol seemed better at alleviating dormancy in AAP and ADH. However, the results in the other two types of kiwifruits are not low compared to other reports [14,52], which coincides with the fact that, in general, cold stratification + GA3 favours the germination of the species A. arguta and A chinensis var. chinensis [53].
All kiwifruit seeds had the same average germination time but had different latency time, germination speed, and germination capacity. AAP had the best values in all traits, ADH took second place, while ACG was tied with AAP in latency time. The variation in germinative performance, in our case, could imply differential adaptations in the seed as a function of its original environment [54], as previously reported in Arabidopsis thaliana [55]. The shorter dormancy time in AAP and ACG suggests that their seeds had less need for exposure time to certain conditions that improve germination. In A. chinensis var. deliciosa, different factors intervene in germination, and although the conditions are suboptimal, there are seeds capable of germination [32]. Our study supports the existence of variation in kiwifruit seeds from different origins, where a shorter latency time is desirable to obtain seedlings in a shorter time.
In terms of germination capacity and germination speed, ADH and AAP performed better. Thus, the dormancy-breaking and germination protocol benefits these kiwifruit seeds. This fact was not observed in ACG and ACS kiwifruit seeds. The variability in the type of dormancy and adaptive strategies among the members of the genus Actinidia has been related to the requirements the plants have according to their ploidy and need for chilling hours [56]. A. chinensis var. chinensis, the variety to which ACG and ACS belong, has been reported with a lower proportion of dormant seeds than A. arguta, from which AAP was selected [14]. Considering the above, it could be said that non-dormant seeds, with a more active metabolism, lose viability faster. Therefore, germination in ACG and ACS, although above 50%, suffered a reduction. In this aspect, the combined protocol between stratification and GA3 had a good overall performance for all the kiwifruit seeds studied, but the storage time and conditions may have caused seed viability decline in seeds that are more susceptible to desiccation. In addition, A. chinensis var. chinensis not only germinates by stratification or GA3 but also by gut passage, germinating up to 63.7% [52], while in A. arguta, germination of 35% has been achieved through ingestion [57]. This could tell us about other germination conditions to consider. In this way, the percentage of seeds that are not germinated but viable in ACG and ACS could have a closer relationship with their dispersion syndrome [58,59].
Regarding the seedling morphometric analysis, root length was the same in all kiwifruits, but in the rest of the measurements, AAP was the one obtaining the best results. In general, the characteristics of the seeds and seedlings resulting from AAP were very positive, highlighting the seedlings’ robustness with rapid gain in height. This demonstrates the plant’s intrinsic ability to take advantage of temporary windows of favourable conditions and colonize extreme environments, which may be the reason why A. arguta is considered a potentially invasive plant in the USA and Austria [60]. The seeds have reserves of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins essential for germination and initial growth of plants [21]. However, there are cases where reserves play a more significant role in germination than in initial growth [61,62]. Given the larger size of A. arguta seeds compared to others, this seems to indicate that bigger seeds impact seedling size. This suggests that seedling growth depends on the reserves included in the seed immediately after germination. However, seedling performance after losing cotyledons remains to be studied.
Among all the kiwifruit studied, A. arguta cv. Passion Poppers (AAP) generally showed better seed and seedling quality, while the stratification and germination protocol used in this work performed satisfactorily across all kiwifruits (AAP, ADH, ACG, and ACD). As for ACS and ACG, the results in all procedures tended to be lower. However, there are still studies to be carried out to improve the conditions of storage and germination of seeds for these kiwifruits, in the same way, it would be necessary to compare the seed reserve substances and performance of the seedlings after the depletion of the cotyledons, along with the simulation of colder and warmer germination assays. Up to this point in our research, for mass production programmes of seedlings, we suggest using AAP and ADH seeds under the germination conditions referred to in this work, as well as considering the parental origin of seeds and the local destination conditions. The tetrazolium test is suggested as a good indicator of viability in kiwifruit seeds.

5. Conclusions

With the data obtained, we demonstrated that larger size and weight in seeds confer advantages in germination traits and seedling morphological parameters under controlled conditions. A. arguta cv. Passion Poppers emerged with the best results among all cultivars, highlighting advanced growth parameters after germination, such as height and robustness. These results fulfilled our prediction and proved our hypothesis that larger and heavier seeds are advantageous for the establishment of offspring in extreme environments, also providing a path that describes the seed parental origin in shaping seed characteristics for rapid establishment of seedlings.

Author Contributions

E.M.B.-Z.: Writing—Original Draft, Investigation, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Validation. B.H.-C.: Resources, Review of the Writing, Supervision. A.A.C.-L.: Methodology, Review of the Writing. N.F.-E.: Resources, Review of the Writing. J.G.C.-C.: Resources, Supervision, Supply of ACG, Review of the Writing. J.C.N.-C.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project Administration, Resources, Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Jeremiah Ordoñez-Wallace for providing critical assistance with the acquisition of AAP kiwifruit seeds. We thank Karen Nassar-Razo for her assistance during the post-germination measurements. We also thank Diana Pérez-Staples, Nadia Moreno-Bluhm, and Roberto Moreno-Quirós for their comments during the development of the manuscript. We thank Candelaria Garcias for her suggestions on germination curves. We thank the National Council of Science, Humanities, and Technology (CONAHCYT) for the master’s scholarship awarded to the student Edgar M. Bovio-Zenteno under scholarship no. 1283197.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agronomy 15 02201 g001
Figure 1. Differences in seed volume of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwis. Different letters indicate significant differences in the average seed volume of kiwifruit according to ANOVA (F3,236 = 126.1, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Differences in seed volume of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwis. Different letters indicate significant differences in the average seed volume of kiwifruit according to ANOVA (F3,236 = 126.1, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
Agronomy 15 02201 g001
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Figure 2. Differences in the weight of 100 seeds of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP). Equal letters indicate that there are no significant differences in the average seed weight of kiwifruit according to ANOVA (F3,36 = 363.5, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Differences in the weight of 100 seeds of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP). Equal letters indicate that there are no significant differences in the average seed weight of kiwifruit according to ANOVA (F3,36 = 363.5, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
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Figure 3. Percentages of seed viability of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP). Equal letters indicate that there are no significant differences between kiwis according to ANOVA (F3,16 = 1.994, p = 0.1555) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. Percentages of seed viability of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP). Equal letters indicate that there are no significant differences between kiwis according to ANOVA (F3,16 = 1.994, p = 0.1555) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
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Figure 4. Cumulative germination of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwifruits under the same germination conditions. The curves were smoothed with the sigmoid function (Y = A0/(1 + (A1*(X^A2))) and the regression coefficients r2 ranged from 0.992 to 0.999.
Figure 4. Cumulative germination of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwifruits under the same germination conditions. The curves were smoothed with the sigmoid function (Y = A0/(1 + (A1*(X^A2))) and the regression coefficients r2 ranged from 0.992 to 0.999.
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Figure 5. Post-germination viability analysis of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwifruits. Viability (%) and seed (%) correspond to the non-germinated seeds at the end of the germination. Equal lowercase letters indicate that there are no significant differences between the viability of kiwifruit seeds according to Brown–Forsythe and Welch ANOVA (F3,6 = 28.11, p = 0.0005) and Tamhane’s T2 post hoc test (p < 0.05). Capital letters indicate no significant differences between the percentage of seeds not germinated according to ANOVA (F3,12 = 108.5, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
Figure 5. Post-germination viability analysis of Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP) kiwifruits. Viability (%) and seed (%) correspond to the non-germinated seeds at the end of the germination. Equal lowercase letters indicate that there are no significant differences between the viability of kiwifruit seeds according to Brown–Forsythe and Welch ANOVA (F3,6 = 28.11, p = 0.0005) and Tamhane’s T2 post hoc test (p < 0.05). Capital letters indicate no significant differences between the percentage of seeds not germinated according to ANOVA (F3,12 = 108.5, p < 0.0001) and Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05).
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Table 1. Name, classification, and provenance of kiwifruit types (Actinidia Lindl.) used for seed obtention.
Table 1. Name, classification, and provenance of kiwifruit types (Actinidia Lindl.) used for seed obtention.
CodenameSpecies and/or VarietyCultivar (cv)BrandOrigin
(cv Growth Place)		Year of HarvestFruits
ADHA. chinensis var. deliciosaHaywardZespriBay of Plenty, New Zealand2023Agronomy 15 02201 i001
ACGA. chinensis var. chinensisGoldenRouge
derived from Jintao		KiwitepecVeracruz, Mexico2023Agronomy 15 02201 i002
ACSA. chinensis var. chinensisSungold Zesy 002ZespriBay of Plenty, New Zealand2023Agronomy 15 02201 i003
AAPA. argutaPassion PoppersKiwi Berry Organics Co.Pennsylvania, USA2023Agronomy 15 02201 i004
Table 2. Analysis of germination parameters in kiwifruit seeds from different origins.
Table 2. Analysis of germination parameters in kiwifruit seeds from different origins.
IDT0 (Days)T50 (Days)VGCG (%)
ADH8.50 ± 0.28 a14.69 ± 0.45 a3.24 ± 0.07 a82.75 ± 1.65 b
ACG6.75 ± 0.25 b13.90 ± 0.48 a2.37 ± 0.23 b65.00 ± 1.29 c
ACS8.25 ± 0.25 a14.32 ± 0.39 a2.19 ± 0.17 b60.25 ± 1.49 c
AAP6.75 ± 0.25 b13.68 ± 0.36 a3.41 ± 0.15 a90.75 ± 1.03 a
Latency (T0), mean germination time (T50), germination rate (VG), and germination capacity (CG). Kiwifruits are as follows: Hayward (ADH), GoldenRouge (ACG), Sungold Zesy 002 (ACS), and Passion Poppers (AAP). Values are presented as mean ± SEM. Equal letters indicate no significant differences, considering ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc analysis with a value of p < 0.05.
Table 3. Morphometric analysis, weight, and vigour of kiwifruit seedlings from different origins.
Table 3. Morphometric analysis, weight, and vigour of kiwifruit seedlings from different origins.
IDLR (mm)LT (mm)DM (mm)PF (g)PS (g)CRIV
ADH49.17 ± 5.21 a19.11 ± 1.24 b1.31 ± 0.04 a0.19 ± 0.02 b0.032 ± 0.00 a14.67 ± 0.93 b2.68 ± 0.34 a
ACG39.38 ± 4.74 a18.44 ± 1.23 b1.14 ± 0.04 b0.15 ± 0.02 b0.023 ± 0.00 b16.43 ± 0.97 b1.53 ± 0.29 b
ACS44.32 ± 4.97 a17.83 ± 1.21 b1.11 ± 0.04 b0.12 ± 0.02 b0.018 ± 0.00 b15.44 ± 0.95 b1.10 ± 0.28 c
AAP50.68 ± 3.74 a28.51 ± 1.03 a1.41 ± 0.03 a0.26 ± 0.02 a0.037 ± 0.00 a20.28 ± 0.75 a3.38 ± 0.26 a
Longest root length (LR), stem length (LT), diameter at neck height (DM), fresh weight (PF), dry weight (PS), robustness quotient (CR), and vigour index (IV) in kiwifruit: ADH (Hayward), ACG (GoldenRouge), ACS (Sungold Zesy 002), and AAP (Passion Poppers). Values are presented as mean ± SEM. Equal letters indicate no significant differences, considering GLM with gamma distribution and Tukey’s post hoc analysis with p < 0.05.
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Bovio-Zenteno, E.M.; Hernández-Castellanos, B.; Castro-Luna, A.A.; Flores-Estévez, N.; Cruz-Castillo, J.G.; Noa-Carrazana, J.C. Parental Origin Influences Seed Quality and Seedling Establishment in Kiwifruit Cultivars. Agronomy 2025, 15, 2201. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092201

AMA Style

Bovio-Zenteno EM, Hernández-Castellanos B, Castro-Luna AA, Flores-Estévez N, Cruz-Castillo JG, Noa-Carrazana JC. Parental Origin Influences Seed Quality and Seedling Establishment in Kiwifruit Cultivars. Agronomy. 2025; 15(9):2201. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092201

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bovio-Zenteno, Edgar Manuel, Benito Hernández-Castellanos, Alejandro Antonio Castro-Luna, Norma Flores-Estévez, Juan Guillermo Cruz-Castillo, and Juan Carlos Noa-Carrazana. 2025. "Parental Origin Influences Seed Quality and Seedling Establishment in Kiwifruit Cultivars" Agronomy 15, no. 9: 2201. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092201

APA Style

Bovio-Zenteno, E. M., Hernández-Castellanos, B., Castro-Luna, A. A., Flores-Estévez, N., Cruz-Castillo, J. G., & Noa-Carrazana, J. C. (2025). Parental Origin Influences Seed Quality and Seedling Establishment in Kiwifruit Cultivars. Agronomy, 15(9), 2201. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092201

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