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Review

Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients

by
Zhongyan Wang
1,†,
Huaqiang Xuan
2,†,
Bei Liu
3,
Hongfeng Zhang
1,
Tongyan Zheng
1,
Yunxia Liu
1,
Luping Dai
1,
Yi Xie
1,
Xianchao Shang
1,
Li Zhang
1,
Long Yang
1,
Sitakanta Pattanaik
4,
Ling Yuan
4 and
Xin Hou
1,*
1
College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an 271018, China
2
Liaocheng Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Liaocheng 252000, China
3
Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
4
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Kentucky Tobacco Research and Development Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472
Submission received: 28 March 2025 / Revised: 30 May 2025 / Accepted: 3 June 2025 / Published: 17 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Pathogenicity of Fungi in Crops—2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
Crop diversification has been acknowledged as a means of lowering the environmental impact of agriculture without sacrificing agricultural output in recent years due to the growth of intensive agriculture. Crop rotation and intercropping—the methodical growing of two or more crops on one plot—are promising practices in this regard. Therefore, we conducted a quantitative bibliometric analysis of observed data between 2014 and 2024 to identify current research hotspots and future research trends in intercropping and crop rotation. A further secondary search for research advances in four key sub-areas (soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N2O, or CH4) and crop yield) was conducted based on keyword clustering. Our findings suggest that a crop diversification strategy can significantly increase soil nutrient content, optimize soil physicochemical properties, and regulate microbial community structure. In addition, this strategy can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N2O, CH4), which will have a positive impact on the atmospheric environment. Crop diversification improves crop yield and quality, which in turn increases farmers’ economic returns. In order to maximize the effective production methods of crop rotation and intercropping, and to increase the efficiency of resource usage, this paper examines the development of research and practice on two cropping patterns worldwide.

1. Introduction

In recent years, intensive agriculture has grown significantly as a result of the rising demand for food worldwide [1]. The Asian Green Revolution was a breakthrough in intensive agriculture that increased cereal production. However, as fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and agricultural machinery were applied more frequently, this led to resource waste and overuse, which worsened soil degradation and environmental pollution, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and eutrophication of land and water bodies [2]. Furthermore, the world’s food supply is becoming less species-rich and more uniform in composition [3]. Crop protection against pests, diseases, and weeds may become more necessary when crop species variety declines, thereby reducing the sustainability and stability of global food production [4,5]. It is acknowledged that crop variety can lessen agriculture’s negative environmental effects without sacrificing output. Increased agricultural output and a smaller environmental impact are required to sustainably supply the world’s crop demand [6,7]. By boosting productivity, lowering environmental effects, and improving climate change adaptation and mitigation, future agriculture is anticipated to concurrently solve a number of interconnected concerns [8,9]. Intercropping (spatial diversification) and crop rotation (temporal diversification) strategies have been shown to improve agricultural sustainability. Therefore, researchers should keep concentrating on the subject of how to maximize the benefits of species diversity to obtain stable yields while enhancing agricultural sustainability. In order to provide a foundation for optimizing efficient production technology in species diversity, this paper examines the evolution of the theory and technology of efficient crop production in rotation and intercropping.
Intercropping involves the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crop varieties or genotypes. Intercropping is economically relevant in many low-input agricultural systems. Studies have shown that intercropping opens up new viable pathways for sustainable agricultural intensification by achieving higher yields per unit of land area than monocropping [10]. Intercropping has long been recognized as an important technique for maintaining food security, promoting sustainable agricultural growth, and fully tapping the labor potential of smallholder households. It has the potential to boost primary productivity per unit area of land while also improving resource efficiency [11,12].
Crop rotation is an agro-technological technique that combines the use of farmland with nutrition, boosts yields, and enhances the agroecosystem. It can be defined as the successive rotation of different crops on the same plot within a specific number of years or the rotation of different replanting techniques. By boosting crop diversity and complementarity in agroecosystems, crop rotation can reduce the number of weeds, pests, and pathogens [13]. When compared to continuous cropping, a substantial amount of research indicates that varied crop rotations produce superior yields. Crop rotation is, therefore, acknowledged as a sustainable farming method that raises soil quality and crop output.
Previous studies have examined how plant combinations affect microbial biomass, plant productivity, and the storage of carbon and nitrogen [14,15,16]. There are still gaps in our knowledge of how soil, plant, and atmospheric interactions affect various cropping techniques, though. To fill this gap, we assembled an extensive dataset from publications published between 2014 and 2024. Based on what is currently known, we hypothesized the following: (1) increasing plant species richness lowers greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), improves the GHG balance, and helps to protect the ecosystem; (2) increasing plant species richness improves the soil microenvironment, increases soil nutrient content, encourages plant growth, and improves agricultural productivity, while species loss has the opposite effect; and (3) diversified planting helps to improve the soil microenvironment, maintain the biodiversity of underground and above-ground ecosystems, and enhances ecosystem resilience.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Methodology and Data Sources

The information used in this study came from the Web of Science (https://www.webofscience.com/wos/alldb/basic-search, accessed on 5 December 2024). We concentrated on studies carried out from 2014 to 2024. Research and review papers were the only document types included in the studies for this analysis, which were restricted to original English-language publications. Documents pertaining to intercropping and crop rotation were obtained separately, and their contents were then reviewed. After data cleansing, the literature unrelated to the topic was excluded from our literature database, and 1677 rotationally valid publications and 1248 intercropping valid publications from the search results were retained as the database for this study. Based on the primary search tactics for the overarching subject of intercropping and rotation, we further honed the search strategies for four important subfields: crop yield, microbial diversity, greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N2O, or CH4), and soil physicochemical qualities. In order to determine the differences in research intensity, we also performed a secondary search inside each subcategory. The details of the search strategies are presented in Table S1.

2.2. Analytical Tools

To find the top countries, organizations, authors, journals, cited literature, keywords, and trends, we utilized CiteSpace (6.1.R6) and VOSviewer (1.6.18). VOSviewer is a literary data visualization program designed for one-mode undirected network analysis, which provides scientific information and keyword clustering maps as its final output. By exposing the fundamental structure and innate connections of scientific knowledge, VOSviewer provides a fresh method for classifying and evaluating the literature. It was employed to display term clustering web maps. A Java-based program called CiteSpace (6.1.R6) offers dynamic, time-phased, multidimensional visual analytics. We used it to display timeline maps of keywords and term bursts, as well as web maps of nations and institutions (Figure 1). Current research hotspots and prospective research trends were identified using the methods outlined above.

3. Results

3.1. Continuous Cropping Disorder

Continuous cropping disorder is a phenomenon where continuous cropping of the same crop or closely related crops, even under normal cultivation and management conditions, results in lower yields, poorer quality, and reduced fertility.
Continuous cropping disorders are common in agricultural production. A decrease in beneficial soil microorganisms, an increase in harmful microorganisms, an increase in chemosensors (or potential chemosensors), inter-root micro-ecological disturbances, and the alterations in soil properties, such as nutrient loss and an imbalance in pH and salinity, can all result from continuous cropping. In their study of groundnuts grown continuously for varying years, Yu et al. (2024) discovered that, as continuous cropping increased, soil fertility decreased, soil enzyme activity decreased, pathogenic microorganisms increased, and soil-borne diseases deteriorated, all of which led to decreased crop yields [17]. Other studies showed that continuous cropping leads to an increase in soil bulk density, a relative decrease in the proportion of aeration pores, a gradual increase in salinity, a tendency for secondary salinity, an imbalance in the proportion of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus nutrients, and even inter-root deficits in severe cases, while soil enzyme activity decreases, soil microbial diversity becomes unbalanced, the relative abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes increases, and soil structure is severely damaged [18,19,20]. Continuous cropping leads to microbial homogeneity, an increase in pathogenic bacteria, and a decrease in plant resistance. As the number of years of continuous cropping increased, the bacteria in the soil gradually decreased and the fungi gradually increased, with a clear fungal trend [17]. In agricultural production, crop rotation and intercropping are effective measures used to mitigate continuous cropping disorder.

3.2. Species Diversity

In the subject of intercropping, there is frequent use of the term “yield.” The terms, “diversity,” “intercropping,” “maize,” “nitrogen,” “growth,” “productivity,” “rhizosphere,” “management,” and so forth emphasize a number of variables that could influence the productivity of intercropping, as well as the fact that it is more efficient than monocropping and the possibility that intercropping, as opposed to monocropping, could increase yield (Figure 2A and Figure 3A). Based on the clustering results, intercropping research has focused on the following areas: intercropping for food production, resource usage and efficiency, interspecific competition and promotion among crops, and yield and economic benefits.
Despite the fact that crop rotation and intercropping are both sustainable agricultural practices, we discovered from the clustering results that studies pertaining to intercropping are more yield-oriented, whereas some crop rotational directions might be more concerned with agronomic and environmental advantages than financial ones. Three primary areas have been the focus of crop rotation research (Figure 2B and Figure 3B). Research on “diversity and productivity” has emphasized the significance of biodiversity. Crop rotation has been shown to be an effective way of improving soil fertility, as it boosts nutrient availability and enhances the structure of the microbial community in the soil, which in turn improves plant performance and crop output. Crop rotation’s function in managing soil organic matter and sequestering carbon, as well as its effect on production, are the main topics of “soil science” research. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that conservation tillage, such as no-till, is successful in enhancing soil quality and carbon sequestration. Crop rotation has been shown to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change, according to research on the topic of “environmental benefits.”
We methodically divided the effects of crop rotation and intercropping on soil–plant–atmosphere systems into four main subfields: changes in soil physical and chemical properties, microbial diversity dynamics, greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N2O, or CH4), and crop yield performance. This was performed based on the keyword co-occurrence network analysis of intercropping and rotation research topics. In order to explore the latest research developments in these subareas in depth, we conducted further secondary literature searches for each subcategory, with a view to summarizing and presenting the research highlights and advances, as described below.

3.2.1. Effect of Plant Mixtures on Soil Physicochemical Properties

Intercropping and crop rotation, serving as efficacious cropping system management methods, exert notable modifications on the soil milieu. Through a multitude of mechanisms, these practices foster the augmentation of biodiversity, enhance soil structure, elevate water retention capacities, and optimize nutrient utilization while mitigating nutrient loss. Consequently, these practices have helped to increase crop quality and soil health while reducing fertilizer application, thereby furnishing robust support for the sustainable development of agriculture.
Intercropping can greatly enhance the soil environment, according to studies. It promotes soil organic carbon accumulation, soil nutrient supply, and soil–microbe–plant interactions through multiple mechanisms. Compared with monocropping, interspecific promotion in maize–soybean and wheat–soybean systems significantly promoted soil nitrogen supply and water supplementation and utilization, which was conducive to increasing biomass, yield, and soil active carbon input [10]. Intercropping modifies the environment within the cropping system and the soil environment, and intercropping maize and peanut promotes organic carbon accumulation by increasing soil macroaggregate C through an increase in microbial necrotrophic clusters induced by root characteristics [21]. Intercropping roasted tobacco can enhance the level of AN, AP, AK, and SOM in soil, considerably improve soil nutrient status, and stimulate soil–microbe–plant interactions, all of which are beneficial to roasted tobacco growth, development, and quality [22]. Intercropping Crocus sativus and Vicia sativa with olive trees improved short-term carbon storage and soil quality in these soils [23]. In addition to enhancing crop yields and lowering fertilizer use, the introduction of cowpea and melon can be beneficial in boosting soil organic matter, soil fertility, and biodiversity [24].
Crop rotation improves soil structure to some extent, reduces soil bulk weight, increases soil porosity, and, to some extent, improves soil aggregate structure and increases soil infiltration capacity and water retention capacity [25]. Compared with monocropping, diversified rotations reduced N losses by lowering soil mineral N during the growth stage of wheat. Meanwhile, diversified rotations enhanced the activities of nutrient-acquiring enzymes and significantly improved the soil quality index [26]. In addition to improving root distribution, increasing soil porosity and infiltration rate, decreasing soil bulk density, and improving soil aggregate stability, rotating deep-rooted crops like winter wheat with shallow-rooted crops like sweet potatoes and annual legumes can increase soil nutrient availability throughout the rooting zone, improve nutrient utilization efficiency, and decrease soil nutrient loss. Incorporating legumes into crop rotation boosted soil microbial activity, increased soil organic carbon stocks by 8%, and improved soil health by 45% [27]. It was concluded that there were considerable disparities in the effects of different crop rotations on the environment of continuous soils [28]; therefore, suitable crops should be selected for crop rotations, and only reasonable crop rotations are important for balancing the microenvironment of arable soils and improving crop yields.

3.2.2. Effect of Plant Mixtures on Soil Microbial Diversity

Different soil microbial communities can be fostered by distinct soil conditions that are created by various crop populations. Research has indicated that soil microbial diversity is significantly impacted by diverse farming. Intercropping and crop rotation soils have higher microbial and metabolite diversity, which can coordinate crop nutrient uptake, reduce autotoxicity hazards, improve the inter-root microbial community, reduce the incidence of diseases, and effectively control pests by altering the structure of the biological community.
The chemical diversity and composition of inter-root metabolites were strongly connected to the soil microbiome’s diversity, community composition, and network complexity, which aided plant nutrient uptake [29]. By altering the physicochemical qualities and metabolites of the soil, Li et al. (2023) demonstrated that changes in soil microorganisms, particularly fungi, may modify the quality of the soil [30]. According to Xiao et al. (2023), a sensible intercropping strategy can improve the soil’s microbial community structure and overall health [31]. Maize/peanut intercropping induced inter-root bacterial community shifts and convergence among plants, especially cross-enrichment of Pseudomonas, from maize to peanut as a key participant and contributor to the improvement of iron nutrition and yield of the crop [32]. Furthermore, intercropping should give due consideration to the selection of suitable cropping areas and intercrops in order to achieve the goal of improving crop quality. Strong interspecific promotion was found to contribute to increased access to disease-resistant nutrients (Zn, Cu, and Fe) in intercropped maize, which, in turn, significantly reduced the incidence of maize rust disease [33].
Crop rotation has been demonstrated in numerous studies to not only increase the amount of effective nutrients in the soil and limit the selective absorption of nutrients by a single crop, but also to lessen the harm of self-toxicity caused by the various root secretions of different plants. This improves the structure of the inter-root microbial community of crops and lowers the incidence of soil-borne pests and diseases. Crop rotation can change the composition and functional genes of soil microbial communities. In a study of continuous peanut cultivation, it was found that continuous cultivation contributed to the emergence of pathogenic bacteria in the soil that induced peanut root rot, and the incidence of root rot was significantly higher than that observed in rotations [34]. Pasture–crop rotation cultivated taxa and potential plant beneficial bacterial genera associated with soil structure maintenance in the inter-root zone of the crop, which in contrast with continuous cropping, and successfully preserved soil bulk and bigger aggregates while increasing crop N intake, N accumulation, and biomass [35]. Liu et al. (2023) showed that the magnitude of the effect of crop rotation varied depending on the management practices [36]. When crop rotation was used appropriately in conjunction with other agricultural practices, it increased soil fungal biomass and bacterial Shannon diversity indices.

3.2.3. Effect of Plant Mixtures on Greenhouse Gas Emissions (CO2, N2O, or CH4)

Plant diversity is a major driver of soil and plant carbon dynamics, according to earlier research, and its loss has a substantial effect on ecosystems and the global carbon cycle, which in turn influences greenhouse gas emissions. Diversified cropping has a positive impact on soil fertility compared to monoculture, improves nutrient availability, reduces nitrogen fertilizer application, enhances system productivity, and drastically lowers greenhouse gas emissions to slow down climate change. Plant diversity is, therefore, important for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving agricultural sustainability.
According to prior studies, the loss of plant diversity can have an impact on ecological processes that is similar to those of other factors that contribute to environmental change worldwide, like drought or high CO2 levels [37,38,39]. As a result, it may have an impact on the global carbon cycle. Plant variety has a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions [40] and soil and plant carbon dynamics [41,42]. Studies have shown that plant mixtures have beneficial effects on soil fertility, such as soil organic carbon (SOC), plant litter, and microbial activity, compared to monoculture, and these positive effects become more pronounced as plant species richness increases, leading to increased soil CO2 emissions [43]. In addition, plant mixtures can increase plant productivity, promote soil nitrate nitrogen (NO3−) uptake, and reduce soil N2O emissions [44]. The intercropping system with soybean significantly reduced N2O emissions for two consecutive years by 38% and 14%, respectively, compared to the monocropping system. Meanwhile, CO2 emissions under this system were also reduced significantly [45].
Diversified legume-based cropping resulted in reduced SOM mineralization within large clusters, increased substrate effectiveness (DOC) was readily utilized by microorganisms without the need to invest more energy in breaking down recalcitrant SOM, and further benefited carbon sequestration and mitigated climate change [46]. The addition of legumes or short winter oilseed rape reduced NO3- leaching, and biomass N uptake of rotating maize was higher than that of monocrops in the later stages of the season, indicating better nutrient availability and potential sustainability benefits [47]. The legume-based rotation greatly increased system productivity while lowering N fertilizer application, dramatically reducing N2O emissions, and improving the system’s GHG balance by 88% when compared to the conventional grain-based wheat–maize rotation [26]. For a more varied system, Xiao et al. (2022) showed that adding cotton to wheat–maize rotations could help to lower soil GHG emissions without compromising yield [48].

3.2.4. Effect of Plant Mixtures on Crop Yield and Economic Benefit

Intercropping and diversified crop rotation systems have significant advantages in agricultural production. Intercropping not only increases the yield of multiple crop products, but also enhances crop resilience, ecosystem service function, and nutrient utilization efficiency. Diversified crop rotation systems are conducive to improving crop physiological indicators and yields and positively affect the multifunctionality of soil ecosystems. Increased crop diversity makes a significant contribution to improved household earnings, in addition to boosting nutrition and food security.
While increasing crop resilience, boosting ecosystem services, and improving fertilizer use efficiency, intercropping did well in producing a variety of crop products and performed nearly as well as the most productive monocrops in producing feedstock products [49]. Wu et al. (2018) found that, compared to monocropping, intercropping of crops such as tobacco and sweet potato was effective to some degree in promoting stem thickening and leaf thickening, and overall did not produce significant adverse effects [50]. The use of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil can be directly enhanced by intercropping oilseed rape with wild peas, which will indirectly increase the crop’s storage of these nutrients. Furthermore, oilseed rape gives wild peas physical support, which enhances canopy structure and radiation utilization efficiency in the intercropping system. This boosts forage yield, soil quality, and returns on investment per unit of land area [51]. Furthermore, more crop diversification can boost household incomes, enhance food security and nutrition, and reduce poverty [52]. According to Li et al. (2021), farmers’ net income improved by an average of 47% when they interplanted maize with various legume crops [53].
It was found that diversified crop rotation systems notably improve soil fertility, enhance soil structure, and increase the activities of enzymes associated with nutrient cycling. This genetic effect further stimulates root biomass, activity and morpho-physiological traits in subsequent crops, leading to significant improvements in root development and crop yield [13]. The incorporation of legumes in low-production areas and under low-input conditions results in a rotation system characterized by greater yield potential, improved resistance and resilience of wheat yields in subsequent crops, and a positive impact on soil ecosystem multifunctionality [54]. Zong et al. (2024) showed that single-crop maize produced greater biomass in the initial rotation cycle, but rotated maize surpassed it in the second rotation cycle, indicating that crop rotations contribute to higher yields over time, although this long-term benefit may not be immediately evident [47]. The widespread adoption of a diversified wheat–maize rotation cropping system in the North China Plain has the potential to increase grain yields by 32 per cent and farmers’ incomes by 20 per cent, while also benefiting the environment [27].

4. Discussion

4.1. Development of Diversified Cropping Research

Crop rotation and intercropping have been conventional methods of producing food crops throughout human history. As demonstrated by shifting research subjects and hotspots, these techniques are still crucial for agricultural productivity. The energy inputs needed for food production have increased even more quickly, despite the Green Revolution’s substantial contribution to the rise in agricultural output [55]. Numerous environmental issues, including soil acidification, ammonia volatilization, and pollution of surface and groundwater, have been exacerbated by the overuse of chemicals and fertilizers [55,56,57,58]. Furthermore, a considerable reduction in biodiversity has resulted from the extensive usage of monoculture patterns, which has made weed and pest damage much worse [59]. It is commonly acknowledged that these environmental costs pose serious risks to the Green Revolution’s long-term viability and reproducibility.
Traditional agricultural cropping patterns like intercropping and crop rotation have once again drawn the attention of scholars as the difficulties with monoculture systems become more apparent. Combining these traditional cropping patterns with modern precision agriculture technologies is rapidly being acknowledged as a significant strategy to attain the objective of sustainable agricultural development [60]. This tendency is clearly shown by the new generation of research hotspots that have arisen in the field of intercropping and crop rotation research since 2014 (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

4.1.1. Trends in Intercropping Research

Early stage (2014–2015): The research hotspots in this stage focus on basic elements, such as “maize,” “productivity,” and “yield,” focusing on the output capacity of major crops under intercropping systems, which belongs to the basic exploration of intercropping efficiency. Meanwhile, keywords such as “soil nutrients” and “fertilization” are more popular, indicating that attention is beginning to be paid to the impact of soil nutrient supply on intercropping systems.
Development stage (2016–2020): The research scope expands, with “arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,” “microbial community,” and “organic carbon” becoming hot topics. This indicates that researchers have begun to dig deeper into the ecological processes of soil microorganisms and carbon cycling in intercropping systems and explore how intercropping can enhance productivity through influencing soil microbiology.
Deepening stage (2021–2024): Keywords such as “greenhouse gas emissions” and “climate change” come to the fore, indicating that intercropping research is further linked to environmental sustainability and is beginning to focus on the role of intercropping systems in combating climate change and their integrated impacts on the environment.

4.1.2. Trends in Crop Rotation Research

Early stage (2014–2015): Keywords such as “microbial community,” “productivity,” “crop rotation” are prominent, mainly focusing on the crop rotation system itself and its impact on crop productivity, while the changes in the microbial community in the crop rotation system are beginning to be paid attention, which involves a study on the basic ecological effect of crop rotation.
Expansion stage (2016–2020): Keywords such as “nitrous oxide,” “soil organic carbon,” and “greenhouse gas emissions” have emerged as research hotspots. This indicates that studies have started to broaden in order to examine how crop rotation affects soil carbon–nitrogen cycles and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as how rotational cropping improves soil conditions and has an impact on the environment.
Integrated stage (2021–2024): Keywords such as “climate change,” “ecosystem services,” and “climate-smart agriculture” have risen in prominence. This signifies that crop rotation research has entered a phase of integrated analysis, holistically addressing ecological, environmental, and agricultural sustainable development. The focus now lies on the multifaceted value of rotational cropping in mitigating climate change, delivering ecosystem services, and advancing climate-resilient agricultural practices.

4.2. Mechanisms of Continuous Cropping Disorder

Crop failure is the outward manifestation of a combination of plant–soil–microbial and environmental factors. Currently, it is generally accepted that the primary causes of crop failure are plant autotoxicity, soil-borne pest and disease buildup, soil nutrient deficits or imbalances, and soil ecosystem damage. This can be summarized as follows: (1) Soil nutrient imbalance caused by continuous cropping. Plants in the growth process, with soil nutrients, have a specific selective absorption law. Specifically, some of the medium and trace elements have a special demand, and long-term continuous cropping often causes soil nutrient imbalance, leading to a variety of nutrient imbalances in the body of the crop, resulting in physiological and functional disorders, thus affecting plant growth, which causes crop yield reduction [28]. (2) Continuous cropping causes plant autotoxicity. The ecology of the soil, particularly the metabolites of pathogenic microorganisms, volatiles, and leachates from plant stems and leaves, decomposing plant residues, and the chemosensory effects of root secretions, encourages the buildup of organic acids and terpenoids under continuous cropping conditions, which impedes crop growth and development [61,62]. (3) The imbalance of an inter-root micro-ecosystem due to continuous cropping. Inter-root micro-ecosystem imbalance is a common phenomenon arising from continuous cropping, and it is considered to be the main reason for the occurrence of continuous cropping disorder. Berendsen et al. systematically summarized the central role of the inter-root microbiome in plant health, clearly indicating that continuous cropping disrupts microbial community balance, leading to an enrichment of pathogenic bacteria and a reduction in beneficial bacteria [63]. (4) Continuous cropping causes an accumulation of soil-borne pests and diseases. Continuous cropping provides parasitic and reproductive sites for root pathogens, resulting in the accumulation of pathogens, which, together with the increased resistance of pathogens due to the over-application of pesticides, deteriorates the agroecological environment [64]. The mechanism of crop succession disorder is extremely complex, and it is an external manifestation of the combined effect of many factors within the crop–soil system, which has severely restricted the development of agriculture.

4.3. The Impacts of Intercropping and Crop Rotation on Soil–Plant–Atmosphere Systems

The effects of plant diversity on crop biomass and productivity across a variety of ecosystem types have been demonstrated in previous experimental and observational studies [41,42,65,66]. These effects also translate into influencing important climate processes, such as greenhouse gas emissions and the cycling of carbon and nitrogen in soils. By boosting soil organic matter, nitrogen, and macroaggregates, crop rotation and intercropping have been shown to increase soil fertility, resulting in long-term yield gains and overall sustainability [53]. New understandings of species diversity systems have brought attention to the importance of crop root systems, apoplasts, and exudates in mobilizing limited or unavailable nutrients in diverse soil contexts [28,67]. Compared to monoculture, intercropping increases soil carbon sequestration and utilization by allowing many plants to be grown on one piece of land. Additionally, higher productivity leads to a greater export of carbon from plant waste to the soil [68]. This research highlights how important plant diversity is to preserving the soil carbon pool, which is also impacted by a number of environmental factors. Increased productivity in species-rich ecosystems is thought to be mostly driven by species’ complementary resource use [69]. Root system topologies with complementary deep and shallow roots can reduce soil bulk weight, increasing soil porosity [28]. Both promote crop root growth, which influences crop nutrient intake from the soil. It is well established that crop diversification has an indirect impact on the soil microbiome by altering soil structure and physicochemical qualities. By encouraging richer and more stable microbial populations, long-term crop rotation alters the makeup of the soil microbial community, improving plant health and soil fertility [70]. Furthermore, higher plant diversity and residue richness under diverse cropping results in greater microbial network complexity. A higher number of module hubs indicates a more robust microbial link within the module, which may improve soil nutrient cycling and crop yield.
Compared to monoculture, mixed farming showed higher plant C concentrations and reserves, and, over time, more species-rich plant communities captured more CO2 from the atmosphere. The reason behind this phenomenon could be that plant combinations with a greater leaf area index have better light interception ratios and radiation consumption efficiency, which in turn encourage plant C concentration and storage [13,71]. Increased C stimulates CO2 emissions and microbial activity [72]. The beneficial impact of species richness on CO2 uptake was only partially countered by the beneficial effect of plant mixing on SOC content and the ensuing rise in SOC decomposition, indicating that plant species richness may have a detrimental impact on net CO2 emissions from these ecosystems. Since soil NO3− is a precursor for N2O emissions, the drop in N2O was ascribed to a decrease in soil NO3− levels in the plant mixture [73]. According to Furey and Tilman (2021) [44], plant mixes are more effective in absorbing soil NO3− than monocultures, which could account for the observed drop in N2O emissions. The specific consequences of diversified farming on greenhouse gas emissions and global warming require more in-depth investigation.

4.4. Hotspots and Future Outlook

The main challenge facing agriculture today is to simultaneously increase food production and mitigate environmental pollution. Rising global surface temperatures and an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events have exacerbated the decline in food production and unstable agricultural yields [74]. Our analysis shows that, throughout the last ten years, researchers have turned their attention to reducing inter-annual production swings caused by harsh weather and increasing crop tolerance to environmental stressors through agricultural diversification. Crop rotation and intercropping have shown promise as important ways to reduce resource depletion and environmental harm while meeting the world’s extraordinarily high demand for food crops.

5. Conclusions

Summarizing the above study and analysis of the research literature at home and abroad, the impact of rotational and intercropping cropping systems on soil physicochemical characteristics, microbial community structure, greenhouse gas emissions, and crop yields are the main subjects of current research by academics. On the other hand, future studies will focus on enhancing microbial communities, inter-root impacts, soil carbon sequestration, and resource use efficiency [36]. The world’s extraordinarily high demand for food crops can be met while reducing resource depletion and environmental harm by using crop rotation and intercropping. Lastly, this work advances our knowledge of crop rotation and intercropping systems in agroecosystems, particularly in terms of crop diversity and associated production parameters.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy15061472/s1, Table S1: (a) Search strategy for INTERCROPPING in the Web of Science. (b) Search strategy for ROTATION in the Web of Science.

Author Contributions

Writing original draft, Z.W.; investigation, Z.W., H.X., B.L., and Y.X.; methodology, Z.W., H.X., B.L., S.P., and L.Y. (Ling Yuan); supervision, H.X., L.Z., L.Y. (Long Yang), S.P., and L.Y. (Ling Yuan); software, B.L., Y.X., and X.S.; resources, H.Z., T.Z., and X.H.; validation, H.Z., T.Z., Y.L., and L.D.; formal analysis, H.Z., T.Z., X.S., L.Z., and L.Y. (Long Yang); data curation, Y.L., L.D., L.Z., and L.Y. (Long Yang); visualization, Y.L., L.D., Y.X., and X.S.; project administration, S.P., L.Y. (Ling Yuan), and X.H.; writing—review and editing, X.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Shandong Province Modern Agricultural Technology System (SDAIT-25-02).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

References

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Agronomy 15 01472 g001aAgronomy 15 01472 g001b
Figure 1. The global collaborative network of countries/regions in academic performance on the themes of (A) intercropping and (B) crop rotation. The year of publishing is represented by a gradient-colored annual ring-shaped country node, and the annual quantity of documents is displayed in varying widths. Greater centrality and substantial collaboration with other members are characteristics of a state node that has an exterior purple ring. The width of the links between nations indicates how close they are, and the hues, which range from purple to red, show how long the collaboration has lasted.
Figure 1. The global collaborative network of countries/regions in academic performance on the themes of (A) intercropping and (B) crop rotation. The year of publishing is represented by a gradient-colored annual ring-shaped country node, and the annual quantity of documents is displayed in varying widths. Greater centrality and substantial collaboration with other members are characteristics of a state node that has an exterior purple ring. The width of the links between nations indicates how close they are, and the hues, which range from purple to red, show how long the collaboration has lasted.
Agronomy 15 01472 g001aAgronomy 15 01472 g001b
Agronomy 15 01472 g002
Figure 2. Clusters of keywords of intercropping (A) and crop rotation (B) strongest citation bursts. Keywords are represented by nodes, and their size reflects how frequently they occur. The co-occurrence link between terms is represented by the connecting line, where the thicker it is, the more often two keywords occur together.
Figure 2. Clusters of keywords of intercropping (A) and crop rotation (B) strongest citation bursts. Keywords are represented by nodes, and their size reflects how frequently they occur. The co-occurrence link between terms is represented by the connecting line, where the thicker it is, the more often two keywords occur together.
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Agronomy 15 01472 g003
Figure 3. A timeline of keyword evolution of intercropping (A) and crop rotation (B) strongest citation bursts. (A) #0, maize; #1, soil nutrients; #2, bacterial community; #3, soil respiration; #4, carbon dioxide; #5, phosphorus; #6, biological nitrogen; #7, straw mulching. (B): #0, microbial community; #1, nitrous oxide; #2, soil organic carbon; #3, crop rotation; #4, ecosystem service; #5, climate-smart agriculture; #6, rice straw; #7, vetch.
Figure 3. A timeline of keyword evolution of intercropping (A) and crop rotation (B) strongest citation bursts. (A) #0, maize; #1, soil nutrients; #2, bacterial community; #3, soil respiration; #4, carbon dioxide; #5, phosphorus; #6, biological nitrogen; #7, straw mulching. (B): #0, microbial community; #1, nitrous oxide; #2, soil organic carbon; #3, crop rotation; #4, ecosystem service; #5, climate-smart agriculture; #6, rice straw; #7, vetch.
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Wang, Z.; Xuan, H.; Liu, B.; Zhang, H.; Zheng, T.; Liu, Y.; Dai, L.; Xie, Y.; Shang, X.; Zhang, L.; et al. Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1472. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472

AMA Style

Wang Z, Xuan H, Liu B, Zhang H, Zheng T, Liu Y, Dai L, Xie Y, Shang X, Zhang L, et al. Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients. Agronomy. 2025; 15(6):1472. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Zhongyan, Huaqiang Xuan, Bei Liu, Hongfeng Zhang, Tongyan Zheng, Yunxia Liu, Luping Dai, Yi Xie, Xianchao Shang, Li Zhang, and et al. 2025. "Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients" Agronomy 15, no. 6: 1472. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472

APA Style

Wang, Z., Xuan, H., Liu, B., Zhang, H., Zheng, T., Liu, Y., Dai, L., Xie, Y., Shang, X., Zhang, L., Yang, L., Pattanaik, S., Yuan, L., & Hou, X. (2025). Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients. Agronomy, 15(6), 1472. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472

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