Turfgrass Through Time: Historical Uses, Cultural Values, and Sustainability Transitions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. The Evolution and Legacy of Turfgrass: From Agricultural Resource to Cultural and Ecological Asset
3.1. Early Uses of Turfgrass in Ancient Civilizations
“Around the cave, a flourishing wood grew—alder, poplar, and fragrant cypress. Here birds roosted, spreading their wings: owls, hawks, and the chattering sea-crows. A vine trailed, heavy with grapes, and four springs in a row sent sparkling water flowing in all directions. Soft meadows of violets and parsley flourished around them, filling the air with fragrance. Even an immortal would gaze in wonder at such a sight and feel joy in his heart.” [25,26]
3.2. Turfgrass in Classical Antiquity: Greek and Roman Traditions
- It refers to a cultivated garden, a carefully maintained space symbolizing human control over nature.
- Thermal regulation: Providing cool surfaces for leisure and relaxation.
- Aesthetic enhancement: Structuring green spaces in geometric harmony with built architecture.
- Social interaction: Creating welcoming environments for conversation, dining, and entertainment [44].
3.3. Turfgrass in the Medieval and Islamic World
- The hortus conclusus (enclosed garden), dedicated to medicinal herbs and food production.
- The cloister garden, an inner sanctuary for meditation and prayer, often featuring a central lawn or fountain, symbolizing paradise and divine harmony [41].
- The physic garden, used for growing medicinal plants, reinforcing the monastery’s role as a center for healing and scientific knowledge [46].
“Upon entering, they found themselves in a garden entirely enclosed by walls. At first glance, it seemed astonishingly beautiful, but as they examined its details, they saw a lush lawn of the finest green grass, interwoven with thousands of flowers. Surrounding this verdant space stood a grove of orange and cedar trees, bearing fruits, flowers, and a delightful fragrance. At the garden’s center, a marble fountain sent clear water flowing into delicate channels that nourished the greenery. It was a place so enchanting that they declared if paradise could be made on earth, it would surely take this form.” [67].
3.4. Historical Turfgrass Species and Management Practices
3.5. Humanism and the Renaissance: The Garden as a Manifestation of Rationality and Art
3.6. Turfgrass in the Baroque Garden: Geometry, Perspective, and Theatricality
- Parterre de broderie (embroidery parterre): Delicate, lace-like designs formed with low boxwood hedges, often contrasting against a gravel or sand background.
- Parterre de compartiment (compartmentalized parterre): Larger, symmetrical compartments that combine turfgrass with floral arrangements, separated by gravel pathways.
- Parterre à l’Angloise (English-style parterre): A simpler layout consisting of large, continuous green lawns, bordered by flower beds and hedges.
- Parterre de pièces coupées (cut elements parterre): A more abstract composition, featuring shaped hedges, flowers, and decorative motifs, set against a gravel or sand background [28].
3.7. The 18th-Century Landscape Garden: The Naturalization of Turfgrass and the Aesthetic of the Picturesque
3.8. The Use of Turfgrass from the 19th Century Onwards
- Carbon sequestration, helping to mitigate climate change.
- Dust and pollutant filtration, improving urban air quality.
- Water absorption and flood management, reducing soil erosion.
- Biodiversity support, serving as habitats for small organisms and pollinators [135].
- Urban heat island mitigation, by lowering surface temperatures through evapotranspiration.
- Noise reduction, especially in urban environments, due to the sound-dampening properties of dense vegetation.
- Psychological and recreational benefits, contributing to mental well-being, relaxation, and opportunities for physical activity.
- Soil stabilization, preventing compaction and surface degradation in urban green spaces [136].
4. Bridging Historical Uses and Contemporary Turfgrass Management
5. The Agronomic and Ecological Functions of Turfgrass in Contemporary Landscapes
6. Sustainable Turfgrass Management: Challenges, Innovations, and Future Perspectives
7. Conclusions, Considerations and Recommendations
- Policy Recommendations
- Integrate turfgrass into land restoration and anti-erosion programs, particularly in peri-urban and degraded areas, where root structure can help prevent soil loss and improve infiltration.
- Promote the use of native or climate-adapted turfgrass species in public green spaces to reduce water use and chemical dependency.
- Incentivize sustainable turf management practices—such as precision irrigation, organic fertilization, and autonomous maintenance—through funding schemes and regulatory frameworks.
- Incorporate turfgrass into urban green infrastructure planning, ensuring its use in bioswales, green corridors, stormwater control systems, and urban cooling zones.
- Support interdisciplinary research on turfgrass as a tool for environmental resilience, linking agronomy, ecology, and public health.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lindsey, A.J.; Schiavon, M.; Unruh, J.B.; Kenworthy, K. Urban Landscapes: Turfgrass Benefits. Grasses 2025, 4, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, L.; Sarah, J.S. History and Evolution of the Healing Gardens: Investigating the Building-Nature Relationship in the Healthcare Setting. SSM-Qual. Res. Health 2024, 6, 100450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, J.A. Ecosystem Services from Turfgrass Landscapes. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 26, 151–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boulos, L.; Fahmy, A.G.-E.-D. Grasses in Ancient Egypt. Kew Bull. 2007, 62, 507–511. [Google Scholar]
- Farahani, L.M.; Motamed, B.; Jamei, E. Persian Gardens: Meanings, Symbolism, and Design. Landsc. Online 2016, 46, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunt, J.D. The Making of Place: Modern and Contemporary Gardens; Reaktion Books: London, UK, 2015; ISBN 1-78023-566-6. [Google Scholar]
- Miller, M. The Garden as an Art; Suny Press: Albany, NY, USA, 1993; ISBN 0-7914-1378-0. [Google Scholar]
- Alberti, L.B. De Re Aedificatoria; Ediciones Akal: Leganés, Spain, 1992; Volume 10, ISBN 84-7600-924-0. [Google Scholar]
- Mukerji, C. Territorial Ambitions and the Gardens of Versailles; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1997; ISBN 0-521-59959-8. [Google Scholar]
- Thompson, I. The Sun King’s Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre and the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles; Bloomsbury Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 2006; ISBN 1-58234-631-3. [Google Scholar]
- Rutherford, S. Capability Brown: And His Landscape Gardens; National Trust: Swindon, UK, 2016; ISBN 1-911358-00-6. [Google Scholar]
- Jenkins, V. The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession; Smithsonian Institution: Washington, DC, USA, 1994; ISBN 1-56098-406-6. [Google Scholar]
- Norris, K.D. New Naturalism: Designing and Planting a Resilient, Ecologically Vibrant Home Garden; Cool Springs Press: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2021; ISBN 0-7603-6819-8. [Google Scholar]
- Ignatieva, M.; Haase, D.; Dushkova, D.; Haase, A. Lawns in Cities: From a Globalised Urban Green Space Phenomenon to Sustainable Nature-Based Solutions. Land 2020, 9, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iqbal, M.A.; Grichar, W.J. Grasslands: Conservation and Development; BoD–Books on Demand: Konstanz, Germany, 2024; ISBN 0-85014-123-0. [Google Scholar]
- Radice, B. Pliny the Younger. Letters, Volume I: Books 1–7; Translator; Loeb Classical Library; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1969; Volume 55. [Google Scholar]
- Radice, B. The Letters of the Younger Pliny; Penguin Books Limited: London, UK, 2003; ISBN 0-14-191594-3. [Google Scholar]
- Priede, K. Aspects of “Genius Loci” and “Hortus Conclusus” in Relation to the Courtyard of the Former Lucerne Central Prison. Master’s Thesis, Lucerne University of Applied Science and Arts, Luzern, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Headrick, D.R. Humans Versus Nature: A Global Environmental History; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2020; ISBN 0-19-086471-0. [Google Scholar]
- Valipour, M.; Krasilnikof, J.; Yannopoulos, S.; Kumar, R.; Deng, J.; Roccaro, P.; Mays, L.; Grismer, M.E.; Angelakis, A.N. The Evolution of Agricultural Drainage from the Earliest Times to the Present. Sustainability 2020, 12, 416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Viollet, P.-L. Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5000 Years of History; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007; ISBN 90-78046-05-8. [Google Scholar]
- de Arce, R.P. City of Play: An Architectural and Urban History of Recreation and Leisure; Bloomsbury Visual Arts: London, UK, 2018; ISBN 1-350-03214-X. [Google Scholar]
- Olivadese, M.; Dindo, M.L. Water, Ecosystem Services, and Urban Green Spaces in the Anthropocene. Land 2024, 13, 1948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobhouse, P. Plants in Garden History: An Illustrated History of Plants and Their Influences on Garden Style; Pavilion: London, UK, 2004; ISBN 1-86205-660-9. [Google Scholar]
- Lattimore, R. The Odyssey of Homer; HarperCollins Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2007; ISBN 978-0-06-124418-6. [Google Scholar]
- Hall, E.M. The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer’s Odyssey; Hopkins Press: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Pregill, P.; Volkman, N. Landscapes in History: Design and Planning in the Eastern and Western Traditions; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1999; ISBN 0-471-29328-8. [Google Scholar]
- Mosser, M.; Teyssot, G. (Eds.) The History of Garden Design: The Western Tradition from the Renaissance to the Present Day; Thames and Hudson: London, UK, 1991; ISBN 978-0-500-01511-7. [Google Scholar]
- Thacker, C. The History of Gardens; Univ of California Press: Oakland, CA, USA, 1985; ISBN 0-520-05629-9. [Google Scholar]
- López-Ruiz, C. Greek Mythology: From Creation to First Humans; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2025; ISBN 0-19-094479-X. [Google Scholar]
- Fitter, C. Poetry, Space, Landscape: Toward a New Theory; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1995; ISBN 0-521-46301-7. [Google Scholar]
- DeWet, J.M.J. Grasses and the Culture History of Man. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1981, 68, 87–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hilditch, M. Kepos: Garden Spaces in Ancient Greece: Imagination and Reality. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Castilho, R.M.M.D.; Freitas, R.C.; Santos, P.L.F.D. The Turfgrass in Landscape and Landscaping. Ornam. Hortic. 2020, 26, 499–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stine, S. Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1996; ISBN 0-471-16222-1. [Google Scholar]
- Hutchison, D.C. A Natural History of Place in Education; Teachers College Press: New York, NY, USA, 2004; Volume 24, ISBN 0-8077-4469-7. [Google Scholar]
- Berleant, A. Living in the Landscape: Toward an Aesthetics of Environment; University Press of Kansas: Lawrence, KS, USA, 1997; ISBN 0-7006-0811-7. [Google Scholar]
- Koutsoyiannis, D.; Mamassis, N. From Mythology to Science: The Development of Scientific Hydrological Concepts in Greek Antiquity and Its Relevance to Modern Hydrology. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2021, 25, 2419–2444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooper, J.C. An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Traditional Symbols; Thames & Hudson: London, UK, 2012; ISBN 0-500-77090-5. [Google Scholar]
- MacDougall, E.B.; Jashemski, W.F. Ancient Roman Gardens; Dumbarton, O., Ed.; Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University: Washington, DC, USA, 1981; ISBN 978-0-88402-100-1. [Google Scholar]
- Aben, R.; De Wit, S. The Enclosed Garden: History and Development of the Hortus Conclusus and Its Reintroduction into the Present-Day Urban Landscape; nai010 Publishers: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1999; ISBN 90-6450-349-4. [Google Scholar]
- Jashemski, W.F.; Gleason, K.L.; Hartswick, K.J. Gardens of the Roman Empire; Cambridge university press: Cambridge, UK, 2017; ISBN 978-0-521-82161-2. [Google Scholar]
- Carroll, M. Earthly Paradises: Ancient Gardens in History and Archaeology; Getty Publications: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2003; ISBN 0-89236-721-0. [Google Scholar]
- Braun, R.C.; Mandal, P.; Nwachukwu, E.; Stanton, A. The Role of Turfgrasses in Environmental Protection and Their Benefits to Humans: Thirty Years Later. Crop Sci. 2024, 64, 2909–2944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fulford, M.; Wallace-Hadrill, A. Towards a History of Pre-Roman Pompeii: Excavations beneath the House of Amarantus (I. 9.11–12), 1995–1998. Pap. Br. Sch. Rome 1999, 67, 37–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, P. The Social History of Roman Art; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2008; ISBN 0-521-81632-7. [Google Scholar]
- Vercelloni, M.; Vercelloni, V.; Gallo, P. Inventing the Garden; Getty Publications: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2010; ISBN 1-60606-047-3. [Google Scholar]
- Spencer, D. Roman Landscape: Culture and Identity; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2010; ISBN 1-107-40024-4. [Google Scholar]
- Bellingham, D.C. W. F. Jashemski, The Gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Villas Destroyed by Vesuvius. New Rochelle: Caratzas Brothers, 1979. Pp. x + 372, 538 Illus. Ancient Roman Gardens. Ed. E. B. MacDougall and W. F. Jashemski (Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture VII). Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1981. Pp. 108, 96 Pls.-A. Hoffmann, Das Gartenstadion in Der Villa Hadriana (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Rom, Sonderschriften IV). Mainz: Von Zabern, 1980. Pp. Ix + 87, 60 Pls., 37 Plans. J. Rom. Stud. 1983, 73, 230–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hudson, J. Walled Gardens; National Trust: Swindon, UK, 2018; ISBN 1-911358-48-0. [Google Scholar]
- Pearson, S.K. Egyptian Airs: The Life of Luxury in Roman Wall Painting; University of California: Berkeley, CA, USA, 2015; ISBN 1-339-21666-3. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, G. Landscape Architecture: Planting Design Illustrated; ArchiteG, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2011; ISBN 0-9843741-9-1. [Google Scholar]
- Coffin, H.G.; Brown, R.H.; Gibson, R.J.; Gibson, L.J. Origin by Design; Review and Herald Pub. Association: Hagerstown, MD, USA, 2005; Volume 152, ISBN 0-8280-1776-X. [Google Scholar]
- Lime, E.K. To Stand in Playful Gardens: The Statues of Roman Garden Paintings and Foucault’s Heterotopia. Master’s Thesis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Leslie, M. A Cultural History of Gardens in the Medieval Age; Bloomsbury Cultural History: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quraeshi, S. Sacred Spaces: A Journey with the Sufis of the Indus; Harvard University Press: London, UK, 2010; ISBN 0-87365-859-0. [Google Scholar]
- Petruccioli, A.; Pirani, K.K. Understanding Islamic Architecture; Routledge: London, UK, 2013; ISBN 1-136-85131-3. [Google Scholar]
- Puerta-Vílchez, J.M. The Alhambra and the Generalife. The Eternal Landmarks of Islamic Granada. In A Companion to Islamic Granada; Brill: Berlin, Germany, 2021; pp. 365–406. ISBN 90-04-42581-0. [Google Scholar]
- Chamberlain, G. Troubled Waters: Religion, Ethics, and the Global Water Crisis; Rowman & Littlefield: Lanham, MD, USA, 2008; ISBN 0-7425-5245-4. [Google Scholar]
- Çalis-Kural, B.D. Sehrengiz, Urban Rituals and Deviant Sufi Mysticism in Ottoman Istanbul; Routledge: London, UK, 2016; ISBN 1-315-60820-0. [Google Scholar]
- Clark, E. The Art of the Islamic Garden; The Crowood Press: Marlborough, UK, 2010; ISBN 0-7198-4358-8. [Google Scholar]
- Ruggles, D.F. Islamic Gardens and Landscapes; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2008; ISBN 0-8122-4025-1. [Google Scholar]
- Campbell, G. A Short History of Gardens; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2016; ISBN 0-19-878461-9. [Google Scholar]
- Bayard, T. Sweet Herbs and Sundry Flowers: Medieval Gardens and the Gardens of the Cloisters; Metropolitan Museum of Art: New, York, NY, USA, 1997; ISBN 0-87099-775-0. [Google Scholar]
- Landsberg, S. The Medieval Garden; University of Toronto Press: Toronto, ON, Canada, 2003; ISBN 0-8020-8660-8. [Google Scholar]
- Marcus, C.C.; Barnes, M. Healing Gardens: Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1999; Volume 4, ISBN 0-471-19203-1. [Google Scholar]
- McWilliam, G.H. The Decameron. Boccaccio, G., Ed.; Penguin Books Limited: London, UK, 2003; ISBN 978-0-14-192157-0. [Google Scholar]
- Ames-Lewis, F.; Rogers, M. Concepts of Beauty in Renaissance Art; Routledge: London, UK, 2019; ISBN 0-429-86054-4. [Google Scholar]
- Mellor, D.R. Picture Perfect: Mowing Techniques for Lawns, Landscapes, and Sports; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2001; ISBN 1-57504-151-0. [Google Scholar]
- Ackerman, J.S. The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 2023; ISBN 0-691-25231-9. [Google Scholar]
- Miller, N.F.; Gleason, K.L. The Archaeology of Garden and Field; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1997; ISBN 0-8122-1641-5. [Google Scholar]
- Duble, R.L. Turfgrasses: Their Management and Use in the Southern Zone; Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA, 1996; Volume 20, ISBN 1-58544-161-9. [Google Scholar]
- Shearman, R.C.; Riordan, T.P.; Johnson, P.G. Buffalograss. In Agronomy Monograph Vol. 45. Warm-Season (C-4) Grasses; Moser, L.E., Burson, B.L., Sollenberger, L.E., Eds.; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA, 2004; Volume 45, pp. 1003–1026. [Google Scholar]
- Gazda, E.K.; Haeckl, A.E. Roman Art in the Private Sphere: New Perspectives on the Architecture and Decor of the Domus, Villa, and Insula; University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 1991; ISBN 0-472-08314-7. [Google Scholar]
- Gollotte, A.; van Tuinen, D.; Atkinson, D. Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Colonising Roots of the Grass Species Agrostis Capillaris and Lolium Perenne in a Field Experiment. Mycorrhiza 2004, 14, 111–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahmed, A.T.; El Gohary, F.; Tzanakakis, V.A.; Angelakis, A.N. Egyptian and Greek Water Cultures and Hydro-Technologies in Ancient Times. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ford, L. The Spaces Between Buildings; JHU Press: Baltimore, MA, USA, 2000; ISBN 0-8018-6331-7. [Google Scholar]
- Latif, Z.A.; Yunos, M.Y.M.; Yaman, M.M. A discourse on the Persian Chahar-Bagh as an Islamic Garden. PMJ 2017, 15, 107–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vargas, J., Jr.; Turgeon, A.J. Poa Annua: Physiology, Culture, and Control of Annual Bluegrass; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2003; ISBN 0-471-47268-9. [Google Scholar]
- Coupland, R.T. A Reconsideration of Grassland Classification in the Northern Great Plains of North America. J. Ecol. 1961, 49, 135–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McBride, J.R. History. In The World’s Urban Forests; Future City; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; Volume 8, pp. 27–70. ISBN 978-3-319-52107-7. [Google Scholar]
- Phillips, D. The Truth of Ecology: Nature, Culture, and Literature in America; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2003; ISBN 978-0-19-513769-9. [Google Scholar]
- Strandberg, M.; Blombäck, K.; Jensen, A.M.D.; Knox, J.W. Priorities for Sustainable Turfgrass Management: A Research and Industry Perspective. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B—Soil Plant Sci. 2012, 62, 3–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Segre, A. Untangling the Knot: Garden Design in Francesco Colonna’s Hypnerotomachia Poliphili. Word Image 1998, 14, 82–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodchild, K.H. Towards an Italian Renaissance Theory of Landscape; University of Virginia: Charlottesville, VA, USA, 1998; ISBN 0-599-15108-0. [Google Scholar]
- Jellicoe, G.; Jellicoe, S.; Jellicoe, S. The Landscape of Man: Shaping the Environment from Prehistory to the Present Day; Thames and Hudson: New York, NY, USA, 1987; ISBN 0-500-27431-2. [Google Scholar]
- Hunt, J.D. Greater Perfections: The Practice of Garden Theory; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2000; ISBN 0-8122-3506-1. [Google Scholar]
- VanDerZanden, A.M.; Cook, T.W. Sustainable Landscape Management: Design, Construction, and Maintenance; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2010; ISBN 0-470-88042-2. [Google Scholar]
- Lazzaro, C.; Lieberman, R. The Italian Renaissance Garden: From the Conventions of Planting, Design, and Ornament to the Grand Gardens of Sixteenth-Century Central Italy; Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, USA, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Hunt, J.D. Garden and Grove: The Italian Renaissance Garden in the English Imagination, 16-175; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2016; ISBN 0-8122-9278-2. [Google Scholar]
- Laird, M. The Formal Garden: Traditions of Art and Nature; Thames and Hudson: New York, NY, USA, 1992; ISBN 978-0-500-01542-1. [Google Scholar]
- Estienne, C. L’agriculture et Maison Rustique; chez André Laurens, Nabu Press: New York, NY, USA, 2014; ISBN 978-1293863725. [Google Scholar]
- Hunt, J.D. The Afterlife of Gardens; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2004; ISBN 0-8122-3833-8. [Google Scholar]
- Hunt, J.D. Gardens and the Picturesque: Studies in the History of Landscape Architecture; Mit Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1992; ISBN 0-262-58131-0. [Google Scholar]
- Toman, R.; Bednorz, A. L’art baroque: Architecture, Sculpture, Peinture; H. F. Ullmann: Cologne (Allemagne), Paris, 2007; ISBN 978-3-8331-3335-0. [Google Scholar]
- Delorme, S. RW Gibson, Francis Bacon, A Bibliography of His Works and of Baconiana to the Year 1750, Supplement. Rev. D’histoire Des Sci. 1960, 13, 153. [Google Scholar]
- Marcus, C.C.; Francis, C. People Places: Design Guidlines for Urban Open Space; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1997; ISBN 0-471-28833-0. [Google Scholar]
- Ross, S. What Gardens Mean; University of Chicago Press: Chigaco, IL, USA, 1998; ISBN 0-226-72822-6. [Google Scholar]
- Conan, M. Baroque Garden Cultures: Emulation, Sublimation, Subversion; Dumbarton Oaks: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2005; Volume 25, ISBN 0-88402-304-4. [Google Scholar]
- Weiss, A.S. Mirrors of Infinity: The French Formal Garden and 17th-Century Metaphysics; Princeton Architectural Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1995; ISBN 1-56898-050-7. [Google Scholar]
- Baridon, M. A History of the Gardens of Versailles; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2008; ISBN 0-8122-4078-2. [Google Scholar]
- Krinke, R. Contemporary Landscapes of Contemplation; Routledge: London, UK, 2005; ISBN 1-135-99471-4. [Google Scholar]
- Prévôt, P. (Ed.) Histoire Des Jardins; Editions Sud Ouest: Bordeaux, France, 2006; ISBN 978-2-87901-714-3. [Google Scholar]
- Courtois, S. Le Potager Du Roi: = The King’s Vegetable Garden; du Paysage, E.N.S., Ed.; Nouvelle éd. revue, augmentée; Actes Sud: Arles, France, 2003; ISBN 978-2-7427-4505-0. [Google Scholar]
- de La Quintinie, J. Instruction Pour Les Jardins Fruitiers et Potagers Avec un Traité de la Culture des Orangers Suivi de Quelques Réflexions sur L’agriculture; Thésaurus; Actes Sud ENSP: Arles, France, 1999; ISBN 978-2-7427-2496-3. [Google Scholar]
- DeLue, R.Z.; Elkins, J. Landscape Theory; The art seminar; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2008; ISBN 978-0-415-96053-3. [Google Scholar]
- Steenbergen, C.M.; Reh, W.; Smienk, G. Architecture and Landscape: The Design Experiment of the Great European Gardens and Landscapes; Birkhäuser: Berlin, Germany, 2003; ISBN 3-7643-0335-2. [Google Scholar]
- Grant, S.W. Gardens Are a Physical Manifestation of Culture: Postmodern Public Parks of the Twenty-First Century Will Be Built on the Infrastructure of the Industrial Age. Master’s Thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Milani, R. Art of the Landscape; McGill-Queen’s Press-MQUP: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2009; ISBN 0-7735-3508-X. [Google Scholar]
- Tang, C. The Geographic Imagination of Modernity: Geography, Literature, and Philosophy in German Romanticism; Stanford University Press: Redwood City, CA, USA, 2008; ISBN 0-8047-5839-5. [Google Scholar]
- Rinaldi, B.M. Ideas of Chinese Gardens: Western Accounts, 1300–1860; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2016; ISBN 0-8122-4763-9. [Google Scholar]
- Whyte, I.D. Landscape and History Since 1500; Reaktion Books: London, UK, 2004; ISBN 1-86189-453-8. [Google Scholar]
- Rutherford, S. Landscape Gardens; Amberley Publishing Limited: Gloucestershire, UK, 2017; ISBN 1-4456-6994-3. [Google Scholar]
- Amherst, A. A History of Gardening in England, 1st ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013; ISBN 978-1-108-06208-4. [Google Scholar]
- Haynes, S. Charles Bridgeman (c. 1685–1738): A Landscape Architect of the Eighteenth Century; Boydell & Brewer: New York, NY, USA, 2023; Volume 15, ISBN 1-83765-117-5. [Google Scholar]
- Haynes, S. Constructing Eighteenth-Century Meaning in a Prehistoric Landscape: Charles Bridgeman’s Design for Amesbury Abbey. Landscapes 2013, 14, 155–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kellert, S.R.; Heerwagen, J.; Mador, M. Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2011; ISBN 1-118-17424-0. [Google Scholar]
- Waymark, J. Thomas Mawson: Life, Gardens and Landscape; Frances Lincoln Publishers: London, UK, 2009; ISBN 978-0711228815. [Google Scholar]
- Moore, C.W.; Mitchell, W.J.; Turnbull, W. The Poetics of Gardens; Mit Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1988; ISBN 0-262-63153-9. [Google Scholar]
- Bowring, J. Landscape Architecture Criticism; Routledge: London, UK, 2020; ISBN 0-429-45098-2. [Google Scholar]
- Christians, N.; Patton, A.J.; Law, Q.D. Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management, 5th ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017; ISBN 978-1-119-20463-3. [Google Scholar]
- Shepherd, J.C.; Jellicoe, G.A. Italian Gardens of the Renaissance; Princeton Architectural Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1993; ISBN 1-878271-52-0. [Google Scholar]
- Casler, M. Perennial Grasses for Turf, Sport and Amenity Uses: Evolution of Form, Function and Fitness for Human Benefit. J. Agric. Sci. 2006, 144, 189–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stanley, B.W.; Stark, B.L.; Johnston, K.L.; Smith, M.E. Urban Open Spaces in Historical Perspective: A Transdisciplinary Typology and Analysis. Urban Geogr. 2012, 33, 1089–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, I. Landscape Architecture: A Very Short Introduction; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2014; Volume 387, ISBN 0-19-968120-1. [Google Scholar]
- Lyles-Chockley, A. Building Livable Places: The Importance of Landscape in Urban Land Use, Planning, and Development. Buff. Envtl. LJ 2008, 16, 95. [Google Scholar]
- Niemelä, J. Ecology of urban green spaces: The way forward in answering major research questions. Landscape and Urban Planning 2014, 125, 298–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Friedman, T.L. Hot, Flat, and Crowded: Why the World Needs a Green Revolution-and How We Can Renew Our Global Future; Penguin UK: London, UK, 2009; ISBN 0-14-191850-0. [Google Scholar]
- Pretty, J. Agri-Culture: Reconnecting People, Land and Nature; Routledge: London, UK, 2013; ISBN 1-84977-042-5. [Google Scholar]
- Schuyler, D. The New Urban Landscape. The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth Century America; Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD, USA, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Richardson, M.; Dobson, J.; Abson, D.J.; Lumber, R.; Hunt, A.; Young, R.; Moorhouse, B. Applying the Pathways to Nature Connectedness at a Societal Scale: A Leverage Points Perspective. Ecosyst. People 2020, 16, 387–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stuart-Smith, S. The Well-Gardened Mind: The Restorative Power of Nature; Simon and Schuster: New York, NY, USA, 2021; ISBN 1-4767-9448-0. [Google Scholar]
- Tunnard, C. Gardens in the Modern Landscape: A Facsimile of the Revised 1948 Edition; University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2014; ISBN 0-8122-2291-1. [Google Scholar]
- Trancik, R. Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1991; ISBN 0-471-28956-6. [Google Scholar]
- Petermann, J.S.; Buzhdygan, O.Y. Grassland Biodiversity. Curr. Biol. 2021, 31, R1195–R1201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wratten, S.D.; Gillespie, M.; Decourtye, A.; Mader, E.; Desneux, N. Pollinator Habitat Enhancement: Benefits to Other Ecosystem Services. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2012, 159, 112–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leinauer, B.; Serena, M.; Schiavon, M.; Sevostianova, E. Water demands and water conservation strategies in turfgrass management. Acta Hortic. 2012, 938, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brede, D. Turfgrass Maintenance Reduction Handbook: Sports, Lawns, and Golf; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2000; ISBN 1-57504-106-5. [Google Scholar]
- Egerer, M.; Schmack, J.M.; Vega, K.; Barona, C.O.; Raum, S. The Challenges of Urban Street Trees and How to Overcome Them. Front. Sustain. Cities 2024, 6, 1394056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beard, J.B.; Green, R.L. The Role of Turfgrasses in Environmental Protection and Their Benefits to Humans. J. Environ. Qual. 1994, 23, 452–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, E.C. Land Use and Ecological Change: A 12,000-Year History. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2021, 46, 1–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olivadese, M.; Dindo, M.L. Cultural Landscapes: Exploring the Imprint of the Roman Empire on Modern Identities. Land 2024, 13, 605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richter, S. Environmental Law: Wisdom from the Ancients. Bull. Biblic. Res. 2014, 24, 307–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, H. Landscape Gardening for Ecological and Aesthetic Gains. Floric. Landsc. Gard. 2017, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Braun, R.C.; Straw, C.M.; Soldat, D.J.; Bekken, M.A.H.; Patton, A.J.; Lonsdorf, E.V.; Horgan, B.P. Strategies for Reducing Inputs and Emissions in Turfgrass Systems. Crop Forage Turfgrass Manag. 2023, 9, e20218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petrovic, A.; Easton, Z. The Role of Turfgrass Management in the Water Quality of Urban Environment. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 2005, 10, 55–69. [Google Scholar]
- Frantzeskaki, N.; McPhearson, T.; Collier, M.J.; Kendal, D.; Bulkeley, H.; Dumitru, A.; Walsh, C.; Noble, K.; Van Wyk, E.; Ordóñez, C.; et al. Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Climate Change Adaptation: Linking Science, Policy, and Practice Communities for Evidence-Based Decision-Making. BioScience 2019, 69, 455–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hejl, R. Improving Irrigation Efficiency in Sand-Capped Turfgrass Systems and Urban Lawns. Ph.D. Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Cheng, Z.; McCoy, E.L.; Grewal, P.S. Water, Sediment, and Nutrient Runoff from Urban Lawns Established on Disturbed Subsoil or Topsoil and Managed with Inorganic or Organic Fertilizers. Urban Ecosyst. 2014, 17, 277–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romero, C.C.; Dukes, M.D. Review of Turfgrass Evapotranspiration and Crop Coefficients. Trans. ASABE 2016, 59, 207–223. [Google Scholar]
- Stier, J.C.; Steinke, K.; Ervin, E.H.; Higginson, F.R.; McMaugh, P.E. Turfgrass Benefits and Issues. Turfgrass Biol. Use Manag. 2013, 56, 105–145. [Google Scholar]
- Lakhiar, I.A.; Yan, H.; Zhang, C.; Wang, G.; He, B.; Hao, B.; Han, Y.; Wang, B.; Bao, R.; Syed, T.N.; et al. A Review of Precision Irrigation Water-Saving Technology under Changing Climate for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency, Crop Yield, and Environmental Footprints. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qian, Y.; Follett, R. Carbon Dynamics and Sequestration in Urban Turfgrass Ecosystems. In Carbon Sequestration Urban Ecosystems; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 161–172. [Google Scholar]
- Selhorst, A.; Lal, R. Net Carbon Sequestration Potential and Emissions in Home Lawn Turfgrasses of the United States. Environ. Manag. 2013, 51, 198–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Guertal, E. Carbon Sequestration in Turfed Landscapes: A Review. In Carbon Sequestration Urban Ecosystems; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2011; pp. 197–213. [Google Scholar]
- Pornaro, C.; Novello, A.; Fidanza, M.; Macolino, S. Grasscycling: A Key Practice for Sustainable Turfgrass Management. Grasses 2022, 1, 45–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flude, C.; Ficht, A.; Sandoval, F.; Lyons, E. Development of an Urban Turfgrass and Tree Carbon Calculator for Northern Temperate Climates. Sustainability 2022, 14, 12423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, R.; Mattox, C.M.; Phillips, C.L.; Kowalewski, A.R. Carbon Sequestration in Turfgrass–Soil Systems. Plants 2022, 11, 2478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phillips, C.L.; Wang, R.; Mattox, C.; Trammell, T.L.E.; Young, J.; Kowalewski, A. High Soil Carbon Sequestration Rates Persist Several Decades in Turfgrass Systems: A Meta-Analysis. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 858, 159974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faragallah, R.N.; Ragheb, R.A. Evaluation of Thermal Comfort and Urban Heat Island through Cool Paving Materials Using ENVI-Met. Ain Shams Eng. J. 2022, 13, 101609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yadav, A.; Khare, P. The Role of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Aromatic Crops in the Management of Bioaerosols at Agricultural Sites: An Overview. J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 2025, 17, 100574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lerman, S.B.; Contosta, A.R.; Milam, J.; Bang, C. To Mow or to Mow Less: Lawn Mowing Frequency Affects Bee Abundance and Diversity in Suburban Yards. Biol. Conserv. 2018, 221, 160–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baldock, K.C. Opportunities and Threats for Pollinator Conservation in Global Towns and Cities. Curr. Opin. Insect Sci. 2020, 38, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larson, J.L.; Dale, A.; Held, D.; McGraw, B.; Richmond, D.S.; Wickings, K.; Williamson, R.C. Optimizing Pest Management Practices to Conserve Pollinators in Turf Landscapes: Current Practices and Future Research Needs. J. Integr. Pest Manag. 2017, 8, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Snep, R.P.H.; Opdam, P.F.M.; Baveco, J.M.; WallisDeVries, M.F.; Timmermans, W.; Kwak, R.G.M.; Kuypers, V. How Peri-Urban Areas Can Strengthen Animal Populations within Cities: A Modeling Approach. Biol. Conserv. 2006, 127, 345–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aziz, H.A.; Rasidi, M.H. The Role of Green Corridors for Wildlife Conservation in Urban Landscape: A Literature Review. In Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium of the Digital Earth (ISDE8), Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, 26–29 August 2013; IOP Publishing Ltd.: Bristol, UK, 2014; Volume 18, p. 012093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sorace, A.; Visentin, M. Avian Diversity on Golf Courses and Surrounding Landscapes in Italy. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 81, 81–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saleh, I.; Kavian, A.; Habibnezhad Roushan, M.; Jafarian, Z. The Efficiency of Vegetative Buffer Strips in Runoff Quality and Quantity Control. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 15, 811–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carey, R.O.; Hochmuth, G.J.; Martinez, C.J.; Boyer, T.H.; Nair, V.D.; Dukes, M.D.; Toor, G.S.; Shober, A.L.; Cisar, J.L.; Trenholm, L.E.; et al. A Review of Turfgrass Fertilizer Management Practices: Implications for Urban Water Quality. HortTechnology 2012, 22, 280–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patton, A.J. Why Mow?: A Review of the Resulting Ecosystem Services and Disservices from Mowing Turfgrass. Crop Sci. 2025, 65, e21376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Von Thaden, J.; Badillo-Montaño, R.; Lira-Noriega, A.; García-Ramírez, A.; Benítez, G.; Equihua, M.; Looker, N.; Pérez-Maqueo, O. Contributions of Green Spaces and Isolated Trees to Landscape Connectivity in an Urban Landscape. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 64, 127277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winkler, J.; Pasternak, G.; Sas, W.; Hurajová, E.; Koda, E.; Vaverková, M.D. Nature-Based Management of Lawns—Enhancing Biodiversity in Urban Green Infrastructure. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sarni, W.; Pechet, T. Water Tech: A Guide to Investment, Innovation and Business Opportunities in the Wáter Sector; Routledge: London, UK, 2013; ISBN 0-203-12729-3. [Google Scholar]
- Colaizzi, P.D.; Schneider, A.D.; Evett, S.R.; Howell, T.A. Comparison of SDI, LEPA, and spray irrigation performance for grain sorghum. Trans. ASAE 2004, 47, 1477–1492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Zhang, J.-H.; Chen, M.-X.; Zhu, F.-Y.; Song, T. Optimizing Water Conservation and Utilization with a Regulated Deficit Irrigation Strategy in Woody Crops: A Review. Agric. Water Manag. 2023, 289, 108523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oğuztürk, G.E.; Murat, C.; Yurtseven, M.; Oğuztürk, T. The Effects of AI-Supported Autonomous Irrigation Systems on Water Efficiency and Plant Quality: A Case Study of Geranium Psilostemon Ledeb. Plants 2025, 14, 770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- El-Naggar, A.G.; Hedley, C.B.; Horne, D.; Roudier, P.; Clothier, B.E. Soil Sensing Technology Improves Application of Irrigation Water. Agric. Water Manag. 2020, 228, 105901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.; Ha, S.; Wang, X.; Hahm, S.; Lee, K.; Park, J. An Automatic Irrigation System Based on Hourly Cumulative Evapotranspiration for Reducing Agricultural Water Usage. Agriculture 2025, 15, 308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, Z.; Zhang, K.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Cao, Q.; Tian, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Cao, W.; Liu, X. Optimizing Nitrogen Application and Sowing Date Can Improve Environmental Sustainability and Economic Benefit in Wheat-Rice Rotation. Agric. Syst. 2023, 204, 103536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tripathi, S.; Srivastava, P.; Devi, R.S.; Bhadouria, R. Influence of Synthetic Fertilizers and Pesticides on Soil Health and Soil Microbiology. In Agrochemicals Detection, Treatment and Remediation; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 25–54. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, T. Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2020, 45, 17–38. [Google Scholar]
- Carrow, R.N.; Waddington, D.V.; Rieke, P.E. Turfgrass Soil Fertility & Chemical Problems: Assessment and Management; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2002; ISBN 1-57504-153-7. [Google Scholar]
- Wolf, B.; Snyder, G. Sustainable Soils: The Place of Organic Matter in Sustaining Soils and Their Productivity; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003; ISBN 1-56022-917-9. [Google Scholar]
- Guertal, E.A.; Green, B.D. Evaluation of Organic Fertilizer Sources for South-Eastern (USA) Turfgrass Maintenance. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B—Soil Plant Sci. 2012, 62, 130–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bicchi, C.; Cordero, C.; Rubiolo, P. Headspace–solid-phase microextraction in the analysis of aromatic and medicinal plants. J. Chromatogr. A 2000, 892, 419–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kroeck, S. Crop Rotation and Cover Cropping: Soil Resiliency and Health on the Organic Farm; Chelsea Green Publishing: Chelsea, VT, USA, 2004; ISBN 1-60358-345-9. [Google Scholar]
- Aguiar, T.R., Jr.; Rasera, K.; Parron, L.M.; Brito, A.G.; Ferreira, M.T. Nutrient Removal Effectiveness by Riparian Buffer Zones in Rural Temperate Watersheds: The Impact of No-till Crops Practices. Agric. Water Manag. 2015, 149, 74–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wherley, B.; Heitholt, J.; Chandra, A.; Skulkaew, P. Supplemental Irrigation Requirements of Zoysiagrass and Bermudagrass Cultivars. Crop Sci. 2014, 54, 1823–1831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patton, A.J.; Schwartz, B.M.; Kenworthy, K.E. Zoysiagrass (Zoysia Spp.) History, Utilization, and Improvement in the United States: A Review. Crop Sci. 2017, 57, S-37–S-72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chouhan, S.; Kumari, S.; Kumar, R.; Chaudhary, P.L. Climate Resilient Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Int. J. Environ. Clim. Chang. 2023, 13, 411–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnes, M.R.; Nelson, K.C.; Meyer, A.J.; Watkins, E.; Bonos, S.A.; Horgan, B.P.; Meyer, W.A.; Murphy, J.; Yue, C. Public Land Managers and Sustainable Urban Vegetation: The Case of Low-Input Turfgrasses. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 29, 284–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, D.; Xu, P.-Y.; An, B.-W.; Guo, Q.-P. Urban Green Infrastructure: Bridging Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Urban Development through Adaptive Management Approach. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2024, 12, 1440477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, I.; Krayenhoff, E.; Voogt, J.; Lachapelle, J.; Allen, M.; Broadbent, A. Time Evolution of the Surface Urban Heat Island. Earth’s Futur. 2021, 9, e2021EF002178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schiavon, M. Turfgrass Establishment and Maintenance Under Deficit Irrirgation and Saline Soil Conditions; New Mexico State University: Las Cruces, NM, USA, 2013; ISBN 1-303-51153-3. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Y.; Mian, M.; Bouton, J. Recent Molecular and Genomic Studies on Stress Tolerance of Forage and Turf Grasses. Crop Sci. 2006, 46, 497–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, R.C.; Bremer, D.J.; Ebdon, J.S.; Fry, J.D.; Patton, A.J. Review of Cool-season Turfgrass Water Use and Requirements: I. Evapotranspiration and Responses to Deficit Irrigation. Crop Sci. 2022, 62, 1661–1684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milesi, C.; Running, S.W.; Elvidge, C.D.; Dietz, J.B.; Tuttle, B.T.; Nemani, R.R. Mapping and Modeling the Biogeochemical Cycling of Turf Grasses in the United States. Environ. Manag. 2005, 36, 426–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sidhu, R.K.; Kumar, R.; Rana, P.S.; Jat, M.L. Automation in Drip Irrigation for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency in Cereal Systems of South Asia: Status and Prospects. In Advances in Agronomy; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; Volume 167, pp. 247–300. ISBN 978-0-12-824588-0. [Google Scholar]
- Zhou, W.; Arcot, Y.; Medina, R.F.; Bernal, J.; Cisneros-Zevallos, L.; Akbulut, M.E.S. Integrated Pest Management: An Update on the Sustainability Approach to Crop Protection. ACS Omega 2024, 9, 41130–41147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bouri, M.; Arslan, K.S.; Şahin, F. Climate-Smart Pest Management in Sustainable Agriculture: Promises and Challenges. Sustainability 2023, 15, 4592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simeone, V.A. Grow More with Less: Sustainable Garden Methods: Less Water-Less Work-Less Money; Cool Springs Press: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2013; ISBN 1-59186-551-4. [Google Scholar]
- Chai, B.; Sticklen, M.B. Applications of Biotechnology in Turfgrass Genetic Improvement. Crop Sci. 1998, 38, 1320–1338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Talaviya, T.; Shah, D.; Patel, N.; Yagnik, H.; Shah, M. Implementation of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture for Optimisation of Irrigation and Application of Pesticides and Herbicides. Artif. Intell. Agric. 2020, 4, 58–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanapeckas, J.; Lemežienė, N.; Stukonis, V.; Tarakanovas, P. Drought Tolerance of Turfgrass Genetic Resources. Biologija 2008, 54, 121–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patil, H.J.; Solanki, M.K. Microbial Inoculant: Modern Era of Fertilizers and Pesticides. In Microbial Inoculants in Sustainable Agricultural Productivity: Vol. 1: Research Perspectives; Springer, New Delhi: Uttar Pradesh, India, 2016; pp. 319–343. [Google Scholar]
- Kowalewski, A.; Schmid, C.; Wang, R.; Braithwaite, E. Advances in Managing Organic Matter in Turfgrass Ecosystems; Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2023. [Google Scholar]
Type of Source | Description | Examples |
---|---|---|
Primary Historical Sources | Original texts and treatises relevant to garden design and landscape theory. | Alberti, Vitruvius, Pliny the Younger, Bacon |
Archaeological Reports | Site-specific excavation and restoration data. | Pompeii and Herculaneum site reports |
Peer-Reviewed Articles | Recent scientific literature on turfgrass, sustainability, and urban ecology. | Articles from Agronomy, Urban Forestry. Grasses, Land |
Case Studies | In-depth studies of specific gardens or parks. | Villa Lante, Reggia di Caserta, Royal Botanic Gardens |
Technical Guidelines | Manuals and institutional reports on turf and irrigation management. | FAO, USGA, EPA publications |
Visual and Iconographic Sources | Paintings, engravings, and historical garden plans. | 16th–19th-century garden illustrations |
Key Challenge | Innovations and Strategies | Future Directions |
---|---|---|
Water Conservation | -Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) reduces water use by up to 40%. -AI-driven irrigation and moisture sensors optimize water efficiency. -Weather-based irrigation controllers minimize runoff and evaporation. | -Expansion of AI and real-time irrigation control [203]. -Development of drought-tolerant turf species [204]. |
Reduction of Chemical Inputs | -Optimized nitrogen application and slow-release fertilizers reduce environmental impact. -Organic soil amendments improve microbial diversity. -Integrated Pest Management (IPM) minimizes pesticide use. | -Increased adoption of organic and microbial-based fertilizers [205]. -Precision nutrient management via soil testing [199]. |
Climate Adaptation | -Breeding of drought-tolerant turf species (e.g., hybrid Bermudagrass, Zoysia spp.). -Polyculture and mixed-species turf systems enhance resilience. -Turfgrass integrated into heat-mitigating green spaces. | -Expansion of climate-resilient, low-input turfgrass varieties [206]. -Research on adaptive genetic breeding for extreme climates. |
Urban Sustainability and Green Infrastructure | -Turfgrass integrated into bioswales, rain gardens, and stormwater management systems. -Carbon sequestration and urban heat island mitigation. -Turfgrass supports pollinators and urban biodiversity. | -Wider implementation of multifunctional turfgrass landscapes. -Policy-driven incentives for green infrastructure integration [136]. |
Technological Advancements | -Genomic and molecular breeding for disease-resistant, low-maintenance turfgrass. -Smart irrigation technologies and AI-powered water management. -Robotic mowing and autonomous turf monitoring reduce emissions. | -Further development of autonomous maintenance systems [195]. -Expansion of precision turf management technologies [69]. |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Viola, P.; Olivadese, M.; Minelli, A. Turfgrass Through Time: Historical Uses, Cultural Values, and Sustainability Transitions. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051095
Viola P, Olivadese M, Minelli A. Turfgrass Through Time: Historical Uses, Cultural Values, and Sustainability Transitions. Agronomy. 2025; 15(5):1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051095
Chicago/Turabian StyleViola, Paola, Marianna Olivadese, and Alberto Minelli. 2025. "Turfgrass Through Time: Historical Uses, Cultural Values, and Sustainability Transitions" Agronomy 15, no. 5: 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051095
APA StyleViola, P., Olivadese, M., & Minelli, A. (2025). Turfgrass Through Time: Historical Uses, Cultural Values, and Sustainability Transitions. Agronomy, 15(5), 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051095