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Article

The Long-Term Effect of Cattle Manure Application on Soil P Availability and P Fractions in Saline-Sodic Soils in the Songnen Plain of China

by
Xiaotong Feng
,
Changjie Liu
,
Yang Li
,
Jiaqi Xu
,
Juan Zhang
and
Qingfeng Meng
*
School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 3059; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123059
Submission received: 29 November 2024 / Revised: 18 December 2024 / Accepted: 20 December 2024 / Published: 22 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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Abstract

:
Lower soil phosphorus (P) availability in saline-sodic soils is due to high pH and salinity, which seriously limited crop growth. Manure application has a positive effect on soil properties and P availability. We conducted an experiment, which included five treatments with different durations of manure application: 11-, 16-, 22-, and 27-year manure treatments, and no manure as a control treatment (CK). The results showed that manure application decreased soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) and increased soil organic matter (SOM). Soil available P content increased by 236.76 mg·kg−1 after applying manure for 27 years. Compared to the CK treatment, manure application significantly increased alkaline phosphatase (ALP) 3.36–6.05-fold and increased microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) 3.69–15.90-fold (p < 0.05). The organic P (Po) and inorganic P (Pi) contents increased with manure application, except Ca10-P and O-P. Furthermore, we found that pH and EC were significantly negatively correlated with SOM (p < 0.05). MBP and ALP were significantly positively correlated with SOM (p < 0.05). Available P was mainly affected by Ca2-P (+0.71, p < 0.001). Overall, manure application in saline-sodic soils altered soil saline-sodic properties by increasing SOM. The results also indicated that enhanced soil available P is due to an increase in Ca2-P, Al-P, and Po mineralization, especially for Ca2-P.

1. Introduction

Soil salinization is a worldwide problem for environmental and agricultural productivity. According to statistics, saline-sodic soils account for approximately 10% of the world’s arable land area and are mainly distributed in South America, Asia, and Africa [1,2]. In China, saline-sodic soils cover approximately 3.67 × 107 hm2 of the land area, and these soils are mainly found in the alluvial plains and inland basins of the arid and semiarid areas of Northern China and in the coastal plains of humid and semihumid monsoon areas [3,4]. The western Songnen Plain is one of the main saline-sodic regions in China, with a land area greater than 3.73 × 106 hm2. It is characterized by a high pH value, salt concentration, and sodium content. The high content of soluble salt ions has adverse effects on soil quality; for example, it deteriorates soil’s physical, chemical, and biological quality and decreases the availability of nutrients, including Fe, phosphorus (P), Mn, and Zn [5].
P is an essential, irreplaceable nutrient for maintaining crop growth [6,7]. However, P is also considered a limiting nutrient in agricultural production due to P being immobilized in soil and having low mobility [8]. Most of the P in the soils is unable to be taken up by crops directly because inorganic P (Pi) is readily fixed by metal oxides and clay minerals [9,10,11]. Especially in saline-sodic soils, HPO42− in the soil solution combines with calcium ions to form calcium phosphate. In addition, it is gradually converted from Ca2-P to Ca8-P and subsequently to the more morphologically stable Cal0-P form, decreasing the availability of soil P. In addition, Maltas et al. [12] reported that an increase in electrical conductivity (EC) has an adverse effect on soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and affects soil P transformation. Therefore, it is important to increase soil P availability in saline-sodic soils.
Most P fertilizers are made from phosphate rock and are non-renewable reserves [13]. Guo et al. [14] showed that experts predicted that global P reserves will be reduced by 60% in 2100. In addition, conventional fertilizers may release toxic gases and chemicals into the environment, causing food safety issues and harming the human body [15]. It is crucial to apply alternatives to P fertilizers to maintain global agricultural production and P resource sustainability. Over the years, many experiments have suggested that organic amendments have an important impact on increasing the availability of soil P. Chen et al. [16] revealed that biochar is rich in available P and can be used as a slow-release fertilizer to continuously provide nutrients for the soil. Applying biochar in saline-sodic soils decreased soil pH, enhanced soil available P content, and changed microbial community and enzyme activities [17]. Wang et al. [18] showed that straw returned affected soil microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) turnover and P fractions, and enhanced soil P availability and P utilization.
In addition, the application of manure in saline-sodic soils is an important improvement measure. Manure application can alter soil saline-sodic properties and enhance soil P availability [19,20,21]. Zhang et al. [22] found that organic matter application reduced saline-sodic soil’s pH value and improved Ca-P dissolution. Gonçalo Filho et al. [23] also observed that cattle manure application altered soil properties and increased soil soluble calcium. Erich et al. [24] reported that organic molecules compete with P for sorption sites, enhancing P mobility. Ye et al. [25] found that the application of organic manure enhanced the activity of soil ALP, which plays critical roles in organic P (Po) mineralization to Pi.
Most previous studies have focused on exploring the role that organic manure application plays in improving soil properties and crop yield in saline-sodic soils. Only a few studies have assessed the dynamics of soil P fractions and the factors influencing P availability under long-term organic manure application. We hypothesized that manure application in saline-sodic soils would change soil P fractions by altering the soil’s saline-sodic properties and eventually enhance soil P availability. Therefore, we used saline-sodic soils in Northeast China as the experiment material to determine the effect of long-term cattle manure application on soil P availability. In the current study, the aim was to assess the effect of soil P fractions under long-term manure application in Northeast China. Furthermore, we determined how soil P fractions affect soil P availability.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

The long-term positioning experiment was initiated in 1995 in Heilongjiang Province, China, at 125°27″ E, 45°7″ N. The study site is located in the western center of the Songnen Plain, which has a north temperate zone with a continental monsoon climate, an annual average rainfall of 457.6 mm, 143 frost-free days, and an annual accumulated temperature is 2800 °C. The spring season is dry, high levels of rainfall occur in summer, early frost readily occurs in autumn, and winter is cold. The main soil parent material is Quaternary fluvio-lacustrine deposits. The soil type in the region is considered solonetz, and the soil texture is clay according to the International Society of Soil Science Classification (52.3% clay, 26.2% sand, 21.5% salt). The basic characteristics of the 0–20 cm soil layer before manure application are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Experimental Design

Based on the period of manure application, we established five treatments. The treatments were as follows: no manure application as a control treatment (CK), and the application of manure for 11 years (Y11), 16 years (Y16), 22 years (Y22), and 27 years (Y27). Five treatments with four replicates were established in a completely randomized block design. Cattle manure combined with ridge tillage was applied to the improved soil area in late April every year. The rate of manure application was 10,000 kg/ha on an oven-dry weight basis and the nutrients present in the oven-dried manure are shown in Table 2 (data from 2022 experimentation). In addition, corn was planted as a test crop, and 375 kg·ha−1 urea was applied in the elongation stage.

2.3. Soil Sampling

Soil samples were collected at the 0–20 cm depth from each plot after corn harvest in October 2022. The samples were air-dried at room temperature (approximately 25 °C) and sieved to 1 mm or 0.25 mm for the measurement of soil properties and soil P. The fresh field-moist samples for soil microbial biomass analysis were first sieved through 2 mm sieves and stored at −20 °C until extraction.

2.4. Laboratory Methods

Soil pH and EC were determined using a pH meter (PHS-3C, Shanghai Shengci Instrument Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) and an EC meter (DDS-307A, INASE Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) in a 1:5 soil/water ratio. SOM was measured by dichromate oxidation with a heating (K2Cr2O7-H2SO4) (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) method. TP was measured by colorimetric analysis (UV-5100, Shanghai Metash Instruments Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) after HClO4-H2SO4 (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) digestion. Available P was determined with the molybdate/ascorbic acid method after extraction with NaHCO3 0.5 mol·L−1 (pH 8.5) (Guangdong Guanghua Sci-Tech Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China).
The determination of Po was carried out through the scorching method and colorimetric analysis. This involved a scorching time of 1 h at 550 °C, followed by extraction with H2SO4, heating at 40 °C for one hour, and colorimetric analysis at 700 nm. Pi was determined by a method reported by Jiang-Gu [26]. In this method, Pi was divided into Ca2-P, Ca8-P, Al-P, Fe-P, O-P, and Ca10-P. The fractions were extracted with NaHCO3 0.25 mol·L−1 (pH 7.5) (Guangdong Guanghua Sci-Tech Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China), NH4OAc 0.5 mol·L−1 (pH 4.2) (Tianjin Kermel Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China), NH4F 0.5 mol·L−1 (pH 8.2) (Guangdong Guanghua Sci-Tech Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China), NaOH 0.1 mol·L−1 + NaCO3 0.1 mol·L−1 (Tianjin Kermel Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China), sodium citrate 0.3 mol·L−1 + NaOH 0.5 mol·L−1 (Tianjin Kermel Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China), and H2SO4 0.5 mol·L−1 (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), respectively, and measured by colorimetric analysis.
The activity of ALP was determined following the method presented by Tabatabai [27]. In a modified universal buffer at pH 11.0, p-nitrophenyl phosphate (p-NPP) was used as a substrate. MBP was measured by the chloroform fumigation extraction method [28].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

All date are presented as mean ± standard error (n = 3). All significant differences among treatments were tested by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan) at a p-value of 0.05 using Statistical Program for Social Sciences version 21.0 (SPSS 21.0) (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Relationships among SOM, pH, EC, MBP, and ALP were determined using Pearson’s correlation analysis (p < 0.05). Logistic regression analysis was used to reveal the impact of MBP and ALP on Po. A structural equation model (SEM) was employed to evaluate the effect of TP and Pi forms on available P. The SEM was fitted by maximum likelihood estimation using SPSS Amos version 2.0 software (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Histograms were created using Origin version 2022 (OriginLab Inc., Northampton, MA, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Soil pH Value and Electrical Conductivity

Soil pH and EC across all treatments are presented in Table 3. The long-term application of manure resulted in a significant decrease in pH compared to the CK treatment (p < 0.05). The soil pH ranged from 10.07 in the CK treatment to 8.06 in the Y27 treatment. There was no significant difference between manure treatments.
Similar to pH, the highest EC was found in the CK treatment, which was significantly higher than that in the other treatments (p < 0.05). The EC in the CK treatment was 1.45 dS·m−1, which was reduced to 0.45 dS·m−1 when manure was applied for 27 years. However, no significant difference was observed for EC among the Y11, Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments.

3.2. Soil Organic Matter

SOM in the manure treatments was significantly higher in the CK treatment (p < 0.05), whereas there was no significant difference among manure treatments (Figure 1). The lowest SOM was found in the CK treatment, which was 17.84 g·kg−1. After cattle manure was applied, the SOM increased to 44.78 g·kg−1, 41.47 g·kg−1, 47.17 g·kg−1, and 50.79 g·kg−1 in the Y11, Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments, respectively.

3.3. Soil Total P and Available P

With the duration of manure application, the contents of TP in the soils showed a gradually increasing trend (Figure 2). The lowest soil TP was found in the CK treatment and was significantly lower than that in the other treatments, except the Y11 treatment. TP was highest in the Y27 treatment and significantly differed from that in the CK and Y11 treatments (p < 0.05) but did not significantly differ from that in the Y16 and Y22 treatments. Compared to the CK treatment, the content of TP increased by 1.52, 1.64, 1.76, and 3.19 times in the Y11, Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments, respectively.
Similarly, the content of available P was increased through long-term organic manure application (Figure 3). The lowest available P was observed in the CK treatment, which was 15.89 mg·kg−1. Compared to the CK treatment, available P increased to 58.57 mg·kg−1, 73.92 mg·kg−1, 131.96 mg·kg−1, and 252.65 mg·kg−1 in the Y11, Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments, respectively. Soil available P was significantly higher in the Y27 treatment than in the other treatments (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was observed for soil available P among the CK, Y11, Y16, and Y22 treatments.

3.4. Soil Organic P and Inorganic P

The content of Po continually increased as the number of years of manure application increased (Figure 4). The lowest content of Po was 118.38 mg·kg−1 in the CK treatment. After applying cattle manure for 27 years, the content of Po significantly increased by 1.08 time compared with the CK treatment (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference among the CK, Y11, Y16, and Y22 treatments.
Compared with the CK treatment, the contents of Fe-P, Al-P, Ca2-P, and Ca8-P all increased with organic manure application (Table 4). Ca8-P and Al-P were highest in the Y27 treatment, followed by the Y22, Y16, and Y11 treatments; the lowest was found in the CK treatment. Ca8-P and Al-P were significantly greater in the Y27 treatment than in the other treatments (p < 0.05). Ca8-P was 141.89 mg·kg−1–496.71 mg·kg−1 in the manure application treatments, which was higher than the value of 22.84 mg·kg−1 in the CK treatment. The content of Al-P ranged from 27.16 mg·kg−1 in the CK treatment to 74.42 mg·kg−1 in the Y27 treatment. There was no significant difference in Ca8-P and Al-P among the CK, Y11, Y16, and Y27 treatments.
The highest Ca2-P and Fe-P values were found in the Y27 treatment, followed by the Y22, Y11, and Y16 treatments, and the lowest was in the CK treatment. Fe-P in the Y27 treatment was significantly greater than in the Y11, Y16, and CK treatments (p < 0.05). Compared with the CK treatment, Fe-P significantly increased after manure application for 27 years (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was observed for Fe-P among the CK, Y11, Y16, and Y22 treatments. Compared with the CK treatment, Ca2-P increased by 3.03, 2.39, 4.35, and 8.34 times in the Y11, Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments, respectively. Ca2-P was significantly higher in the Y27 treatment than in the CK and Y11 treatments (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was found for Ca2-P among the Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments.
The highest O-P was observed in the Y16 treatment, followed by the Y22, CK, Y27, and Y11 treatments. However, no significant difference was found for O-P across all treatments. Ca10-P was highest in the Y11 treatment, followed by the Y22, CK, and Y27 treatments, and was lowest in the Y16 treatment. Ca10-P did not significantly differ across all treatments.

3.5. Soil Microbial Biomass Phosphorus and Alkaline Phosphatase Activity

The concentration of MBP continually increased with increasing years of manure application (Figure 5). MBP was significantly lower in the CK treatment than in the manure treatments except in the Y11 treatment (p < 0.05). MBP ranged from 49.48 mg·kg−1 to 110.96 mg·kg−1 in the manure application treatments, which was higher than the value of 8.24 mg·kg−1 in the CK treatment. However, there were no significant differences among the Y27, Y22, and Y16 treatments or the Y22, Y16, and Y11 treatments.
All the manure treatments significantly increased the ALP activity compared with the CK treatment (p < 0.05) (Figure 6). The activity of ALP was highest in the Y22 treatment, followed by the Y27, Y16, and Y11 treatments, and was lowest in the CK treatment. ALP activity increased by 2.36–5.05 times in the manure application treatments compared with no manure treatment. ALP activity in the Y22 treatment was significantly higher than that in the CK and Y11 treatments (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was found among the Y16, Y22, and Y27 treatments.

3.6. Relationships Between Total P, P Fractions, and Available P

The mechanism by which available P is regulated by P fractions and TP was investigated using SEM analysis (Figure 7). SEM analysis revealed that soil TP had a directly positive impact on Po with a standardized path coefficient of 0.54**. Notably, TP had more significant effects on Ca2-P (+0.69, p < 0.001), Ca8-P (+0.94, p < 0.001) and Fe-P (+0.75, p < 0.001). In addition, available P was mainly regulated by Ca2-P (standardized path coefficient = 0.71***) and was also affected by Al-P (standardized path coefficient = 0.21*) and Po (standardized path coefficient = 0.15*).

4. Discussion

4.1. Long-Term Effect of Manure Application on Soil Properties, Microbial Biomass Phosphorus, and Alkaline Phosphatase Activity

Our findings revealed that manure application in saline-sodic soils significantly increased SOM and altered the soil’s saline-sodic properties. In this study, the concentration of SOM in the manure treatments was significantly higher than that in the CK treatment (Figure 1). This is consistent with the results of Li et al. [29], who determined that organic materials’ addition to saline-sodic soils enhanced soil organic carbon. This may be directly caused by cattle manure application. Similarly, compost also enhanced the content of SOM. Larkin et al. [30] revealed that compost increased aggregate stability, microbial activity, and SOM.
The crucial role of farmyard manure addition in decreasing soil salinization and alkalinity in saline-sodic soils has been widely reported [31,32]. Our study revealed that cattle manure application to saline-sodic soils decreased soil pH and EC, as demonstrated in a previous study [33]. The results from the correlation analysis indicated that SOM was significantly and negatively correlated with pH and EC (p < 0.05, Figure 8). pH significantly decreasing with increasing SOM may be because SOM decomposed to produce organic acids, exerted an acidifying effect, and decreased soil pH [34,35]. Our study agrees with other published reports that manure application reduced soil salinity stress [36]. The decrease in EC may be because the soil structure improved and the soluble salts leached from topsoil [37]. Our results are similar to those of Bai et al. [38], who showed that the return of straw decreased soil pH and the content of soluble salts in saline-sodic soils.
In our study, the contents of MBP and ALP in the manure treatments were higher than those in the CK treatment. These results are in agreement with the findings of previous studies that manure application in saline-sodic soils enhanced the soil MBP and ALP contents [39,40]. The results from the correlation analysis indicated that MBP and ALP were significantly and positively correlated with SOM and negatively correlated with pH and EC (p < 0.05, Figure 8). This is similar to the result of Liu et al. [41], who revealed that ALP was positively correlated with SOM and negatively correlated with pH, and that ALP was indirectly positively affected by SOM. The fact that ALP activity was enhanced might be because ALP is mainly produced by microorganisms, and microbial activity and diversity enhanced after manure application. The findings agree with previous research, which found that soil enzyme and microbial activities were affected by the soil’s physicochemical properties, such as pH and SOM [42,43]. Our results are consistent with the research of Li et al. [44], who revealed that applied organic amendments such as sludge enhanced the microbial communities’ diversification in saline-sodic soils.

4.2. Long-Term Effect of Manure Application on Soil Total P, Available P, and P Fractions

Our finding aligns with previous studies that reported that manure application significantly increased the content of soil TP and available P [45,46]. In our study, SEM analysis demonstrated that an increase in TP content mainly increased the content of soil Ca2-P, Ca8-P, Fe-P, and Po (Figure 7). In addition, we observed that the contents of Pi fractions in the manure treatments were higher than those in the CK treatment, except Ca10-P and O-P (Table 4). This is consistent with the results of Helfenstein et al. [47], who found that stable P (Ca10-P and O-P) is difficult to transform and form.
Our results showed that the content of Po significantly increased with manure application, whereas we found that the proportion of Po in TP was highest in the CK treatment (Figure 9). Wei et al. [48] reported that the lower ratio of Po/TP is attributable to the promotion of Po transformation to Pi. Ma et al. [49] revealed that long-term manure application enhanced Po mineralization.
Logistic regression analysis indicated that Po was affected by MBP and ALP (Equation (1)). One possible explanation would be that Po mineralized to Pi due to increased MBP and ALP.
y = 86.450 + 2.229x1 + 0.805x2
where y represents Po, x1 represents ALP, and x2 represents MBP.
Our results showed that available P was mainly affected by Ca2-P and was affected by Po and Al-P secondly (Figure 7). This indicated that manure application increased soil phosphorus availability by enhancing the soil Ca2-P content. We also found that Ca2-P and Al-P were affected by Ca8-P (Figure 7). These results agree with the results of Shen et al. [50], who showed that Ca2-P was a potentially available P source, and after Ca2-P was exhausted, Ca8-P was the greatest potential pool to contribute to plant growth. Possible reasons for the increase in Ca2-P content include the following: (i) A decrease in soil pH under drought conditions might promote calcium phosphate solubilization [51]. (ii) An increase in soil ALP favors the formation of Ca2-P by promoting Po mineralization.
However, this study explored the long-term effects of manure application in saline-sodic soils only using cattle manure. Further research should investigate the effect of other organic amendments on nutrient availability, especially P availability. Meanwhile, further research could investigate the potential effects of microorganisms or soil structure on P availability in saline-sodic soils.

5. Conclusions

The results from our study demonstrated that long-term manure application to saline-sodic soils altered the soil’s saline-sodic properties and enhanced soil P availability by changing the content of soil P fractions. Pearson’s correlation analysis indicated that long-term manure application increased the SOM content, altered the soil’s saline-sodic properties, and enhanced the activity of soil MBP and ALP. SEM analysis showed that available P was mainly affected by Ca2-P in saline-sodic soils and was affected by Po and Al-P secondly. The relationship between MBP, ALP, and Po indicated that MBP and ALP affected Po mineralization. Overall, manure application to saline-sodic soils enhanced soil P availability via increasing Ca2-P and Al-P content and promoting soil Po mineralization, especially for Ca2-P.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.M. and X.F.; methodology, X.F., Q.M. and J.Z.; software, X.F. and C.L.; validation, X.F., C.L. and Y.L.; formal analysis, X.F.; investigation, Y.L., J.X. and J.Z.; resources, Q.M.; data curation, X.F.; writing—original draft preparation, X.F.; writing—review and editing, Q.M.; visualization, X.F.; supervision, Q.M.; project administration, X.F.; funding acquisition, Q.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Basic Research Support Program of Heilongjiang Province, grant number YQJH2023203.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Northeast Agricultural University for its strong support of this study and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agronomy 14 03059 g001
Figure 1. Soil organic matter (SOM) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 1. Soil organic matter (SOM) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g002
Figure 2. Soil total P (TP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 2. Soil total P (TP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g003
Figure 3. Soil available P under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 3. Soil available P under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g004
Figure 4. Soil organic P (Po) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 4. Soil organic P (Po) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g005
Figure 5. Soil microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 5. Soil microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g006
Figure 6. Soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 6. Soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g007
Figure 7. SEM analysis of influencing factors of total P (TP), P forms, and available P. Arrows indicate hypothesized directions of causation. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001. Red and blue arrows represent positive and negative relationships. Dashed arrows indicate non-significant relationships. Numbers next the solid arrows are standardized path coefficients. TP, total P; Po, organic P; Chi/df = Chi-square/Degree of freedom; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; NFI = Normed Fit Index; P = probability level.
Figure 7. SEM analysis of influencing factors of total P (TP), P forms, and available P. Arrows indicate hypothesized directions of causation. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001. Red and blue arrows represent positive and negative relationships. Dashed arrows indicate non-significant relationships. Numbers next the solid arrows are standardized path coefficients. TP, total P; Po, organic P; Chi/df = Chi-square/Degree of freedom; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; NFI = Normed Fit Index; P = probability level.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g008
Figure 8. Pearson’s correlation coefficients among pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic matter (SOM), soil microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP), and soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP). *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01. EC, electrical conductivity; SOM, soil organic matter; MBP, microbial biomass phosphorus; ALP, alkaline phosphatase.
Figure 8. Pearson’s correlation coefficients among pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic matter (SOM), soil microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP), and soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP). *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01. EC, electrical conductivity; SOM, soil organic matter; MBP, microbial biomass phosphorus; ALP, alkaline phosphatase.
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Agronomy 14 03059 g009
Figure 9. The proportion of organic P (Po) in total P (TP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
Figure 9. The proportion of organic P (Po) in total P (TP) under different treatments for long-term experimentation. Mean values with the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Table 1. Basic physical and chemical properties of 0–20 cm soil layer prior to reclamation.
Table 1. Basic physical and chemical properties of 0–20 cm soil layer prior to reclamation.
pH ValueEC/(dS·m−1)BD/(g·cm−3)Exc. Na+/(cmol·kg−1)SOM/(g·kg−1)TP/(g·kg−1)Available P/(mg·kg−1)
9.506.231.3512.0610.950.2512.08
Note: The basic properties of the test area before cultivation were the average value obtained after multi-point sampling. EC: electrical conductivity; BD: bulk density; Exc.: exchangeable; SOM: soil organic matter; TP: total P.
Table 2. Basic properties of the nutrients of oven-dry weight manure.
Table 2. Basic properties of the nutrients of oven-dry weight manure.
pH ValueSOM/(g·kg−1)Na/(g·kg−1)N/(g·kg−1)P/(g·kg−1)K/(g·kg−1)Ca/(g·kg−1)Mg/(g·kg−1)
8.42590.690.4113.2812.0215.359.774.58
Note: SOM: soil organic matter.
Table 3. Soil saline–alkaline properties under different treatments for long-term experimentation.
Table 3. Soil saline–alkaline properties under different treatments for long-term experimentation.
Soil PropertiesTreatments
CKY11Y16Y22Y27
pH value10.07 ± 0.11 a8.24 ± 0.92 b8.55 ± 0.93 b8.81 ± 0.84 b8.06 ± 0.13 b
EC/(dS·m−1)1.45 ± 0.34 a0.55 ± 0.26 b0.55 ± 0.24 b0.63 ± 0.26 b0.45 ± 0.14 b
Note: Mean values in the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05. EC: electrical conductivity.
Table 4. Soil inorganic P (Pi) under different treatments for long-term experimentation.
Table 4. Soil inorganic P (Pi) under different treatments for long-term experimentation.
PiTreatments
CKY11Y16Y22Y27
Fe-P10.77 ± 7.57 b18.43 ± 4.29 b18.26 ± 2.38 b31.91 ± 17.59 ab45.40 ± 29.46 a
Al-P27.16 ± 7.71 b36.88 ± 6.45 b39.63 ± 7.96 b45.72 ± 17.93 b74.42 ± 24.28 a
Ca2-P15.04 ± 8.68 b60.58 ± 54.04 b50.92 ± 37.53 ab80.45 ± 42.82 ab140.49 ± 64.38 a
Ca8-P11.42 ± 7.28 b72.89 ± 31.34 b81.73 ± 48.17 b117.46 ± 95.21 b248.35 ± 132.68 a
Ca10-P32.10 ± 7.6836.08 ± 5.3527.39 ± 3.7733.06 ± 6.5530.31 ± 5.17
O-P40.63 ± 47.4914.89 ± 18.7755.77 ± 39.6143.41 ± 22.8837.51 ± 26.69
Note: Mean values in the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different using Ducan’s test at p < 0.05.
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Feng, X.; Liu, C.; Li, Y.; Xu, J.; Zhang, J.; Meng, Q. The Long-Term Effect of Cattle Manure Application on Soil P Availability and P Fractions in Saline-Sodic Soils in the Songnen Plain of China. Agronomy 2024, 14, 3059. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123059

AMA Style

Feng X, Liu C, Li Y, Xu J, Zhang J, Meng Q. The Long-Term Effect of Cattle Manure Application on Soil P Availability and P Fractions in Saline-Sodic Soils in the Songnen Plain of China. Agronomy. 2024; 14(12):3059. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123059

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feng, Xiaotong, Changjie Liu, Yang Li, Jiaqi Xu, Juan Zhang, and Qingfeng Meng. 2024. "The Long-Term Effect of Cattle Manure Application on Soil P Availability and P Fractions in Saline-Sodic Soils in the Songnen Plain of China" Agronomy 14, no. 12: 3059. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123059

APA Style

Feng, X., Liu, C., Li, Y., Xu, J., Zhang, J., & Meng, Q. (2024). The Long-Term Effect of Cattle Manure Application on Soil P Availability and P Fractions in Saline-Sodic Soils in the Songnen Plain of China. Agronomy, 14(12), 3059. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123059

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