Enhancing Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) Seed Quality through Microwaves Application
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Water Temperature
3.2. Seed Germination
3.3. Seed Health
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Input Power (W) | Treatment Time (s) | Temperature (°C) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Min. | Max. | Average | ||
500 | 30 | 43.0 | 45.0 | 44.0 |
35 | 44.0 | 48.0 | 46.3 | |
40 | 45.0 | 48.0 | 46.7 | |
45 | 48.0 | 49.0 | 48.4 | |
50 | 50.0 | 54.0 | 53.2 | |
650 | 30 | 47.0 | 51.0 | 48.7 |
35 | 49.0 | 52.5 | 51.6 | |
40 | 51.5 | 55.0 | 52.9 | |
45 | 54.0 | 57.0 | 54.8 | |
50 | 61.0 | 64.0 | 62.4 | |
750 | 30 | 51.0 | 54.0 | 52.3 |
35 | 54.0 | 57.0 | 55.9 | |
40 | 57.0 | 58.0 | 57.6 | |
45 | 58.0 | 60.0 | 59.8 | |
50 | 63.0 | 65.0 | 64.2 |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Germination at the First Count (%) | Germination at the Final Count (%) | Abnormal Diseased Seedlings (%) | Dead Seeds (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control 1 | - | 52.7 | b–e 2 | 54.7 | c–g | 40.0 | a–e | 5.3 | c–e |
Fungicide | - | 51.0 | c–f | 59.3 | a–e | 29.7 | e–h | 9.7 | b–d |
Distilled water | 30 | 51.0 | c–f | 51.7 | d–h | 38.7 | a–f | 9.7 | bc |
35 | 61.3 | bc | 62.7 | a–c | 27.7 | gh | 5.3 | de | |
40 | 41.3 | fg | 49.0 | e–h | 42.7 | a–c | 7.0 | c–e | |
45 | 37.7 | g | 42.3 | hi | 49.3 | a | 7.3 | c–e | |
50 | 42.3 | e–g | 45.7 | gh | 47.0 | a | 7.3 | c–e | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 46.7 | e–g | 49.0 | e–h | 45.7 | ab | 6.3 | c–e |
35 | 46.0 | e–g | 48.0 | f–h | 45.0 | ab | 6.7 | c–e | |
40 | 47.7 | e–g | 49.7 | e–h | 46.0 | ab | 4.0 | e | |
45 | 49.7 | d–f | 53.3 | c–g | 41.7 | a–d | 5.0 | de | |
50 | 58.0 | a-d | 62.0 | a–d | 31.0 | d–h | 7.0 | c–e | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 64.7 | a | 67.0 | ab | 26.7 | gh | 5.7 | c–e |
35 | 68.3 | a | 69.0 | a | 24.7 | h | 4.7 | de | |
40 | 63.7 | a | 64.0 | a–c | 31.3 | d–h | 3.3 | e | |
45 | 60.3 | a–c | 60.7 | a–d | 32.3 | c–h | 7.0 | c–e | |
50 | 25.7 | h | 30.0 | j | 41.3 | a–d | 16.7 | b | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 66.3 | a | 66.0 | ab | 28.0 | f–h | 6.0 | c–e |
35 | 62.7 | ab | 63.3 | a–c | 25.7 | gh | 10.0 | b–d | |
40 | 59.7 | a–d | 62.7 | a–c | 26.3 | gh | 10.0 | b–d | |
45 | 44.7 | e–g | 48.0 | f–h | 35.3 | b–g | 15.3 | b | |
50 | 25.0 | h | 35.7 | ij | 27.0 | gh | 30.7 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Germination at the First Count (%) | Germination at the Final Count (%) | Abnormal Diseased Seedlings (%) | Dead Seeds (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control 1 | - | 44.3 | a–c 2 | 44.7 | a–e | 40.0 | c–g | 15.3 | c–f |
Fungicide | - | 51.3 | a | 52.0 | a | 34.3 | g–i | 9.7 | ef |
Distilled water | 30 | 37.3 | c–f | 40.0 | c–f | 44.7 | a–e | 14.3 | d–f |
35 | 32.7 | ef | 37.7 | d–f | 47.3 | ab | 15.3 | c–e | |
40 | 31.3 | f | 32.7 | fg | 50.3 | a | 17.0 | b–d | |
45 | 42.7 | a–d | 43.0 | a–e | 40.7 | b–g | 16.0 | b–d | |
50 | 40.7 | b–e | 40.0 | b–f | 47.7 | a–c | 12.3 | d–f | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 38.3 | b–f | 38.7 | d–f | 41.7 | a–g | 19.0 | b–d |
35 | 38.7 | b–f | 38.7 | d–f | 44.3 | a–f | 16.7 | b–d | |
40 | 33.7 | d–f | 36.0 | e–g | 48.3 | a–d | 14.3 | d–f | |
45 | 50.3 | a | 50.7 | ab | 39.7 | c–g | 9.0 | f | |
50 | 44.3 | a–c | 44.7 | a–e | 35.7 | e–h | 16.3 | b–d | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 39.0 | b–f | 40.7 | b–f | 38.3 | e–h | 21.0 | b–d |
35 | 39.7 | b–f | 40.7 | b–f | 39.3 | d–g | 20.0 | b–d | |
40 | 48.7 | ab | 49.0 | a–c | 37.0 | e–h | 14.0 | d–f | |
45 | 42.7 | a–d | 45.0 | a–e | 33.3 | g–i | 21.3 | b–d | |
50 | 24.0 | g | 29.0 | g | 25.3 | i | 45.7 | a | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 47.7 | ab | 48.3 | a–d | 35.0 | f–h | 15.3 | c–e |
35 | 47.7 | ab | 48.7 | a–d | 29.0 | hi | 19.0 | b–d | |
40 | 40.7 | b–e | 41.3 | b–f | 32.3 | g–i | 24.0 | bc | |
45 | 37.7 | c–f | 38.3 | d–f | 33.0 | g–i | 24.0 | bc | |
50 | 7.7 | h | 8.7 | h | 32.0 | g–i | 50.3 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Germination at the First Count (%) | Germination at the Final Count (%) | Abnormal Diseased Seedlings (%) | Dead Seeds (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control 1 | - | 29.7 | f–h 2 | 32.3 | g–i | 49.7 | a | 18.0 | d |
Fungicide | - | 37.7 | de | 41.7 | b–f | 39.3 | a–g | 14.7 | d |
Distilled water | 30 | 34.3 | e–g | 36.0 | e–h | 46.0 | a–d | 17.3 | d |
35 | 37.3 | d–f | 40.0 | c–g | 45.7 | a–d | 14.0 | d | |
40 | 34.3 | e–g | 38.3 | d–h | 46.3 | a–c | 15.3 | d | |
45 | 34.3 | e–g | 36.0 | e–h | 48.7 | ab | 15.0 | d | |
50 | 31.7 | e–g | 35.3 | f–h | 47.0 | a–c | 17.3 | d | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 45.7 | b–d | 47.3 | b–d | 39.0 | a–g | 13.3 | d |
35 | 37.0 | d–f | 42.3 | b–f | 37.3 | c–g | 19.0 | d | |
40 | 47.7 | a–c | 50.7 | ab | 30.7 | gh | 18.7 | d | |
45 | 45.7 | b–d | 49.3 | a–c | 38.0 | b–g | 12.3 | d | |
50 | 39.0 | c–e | 45.0 | b–e | 40.0 | a–g | 15.0 | d | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 45.7 | a | 58.7 | a | 24.0 | h | 14.0 | d |
35 | 43.7 | b–d | 45.7 | b–e | 42.0 | a–f | 11.7 | d | |
40 | 49.3 | ab | 51.0 | ab | 33.7 | e–h | 14.7 | d | |
45 | 48.0 | a–c | 51.0 | ab | 34.0 | d–g | 15.0 | d | |
50 | 24.3 | h | 27.0 | i | 29.7 | gh | 38.7 | b | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 44.7 | b–d | 47.0 | b–d | 39.0 | a–g | 13.7 | d |
35 | 44.7 | b–d | 45.3 | b–e | 37.3 | c–g | 17.3 | d | |
40 | 42.7 | b–d | 45.0 | b–e | 37.3 | c–g | 16.7 | d | |
45 | 27.3 | gh | 30.0 | hi | 43.0 | a–e | 27.0 | c | |
50 | 4.7 | i | 5.3 | j | 32.0 | f–h | 61.7 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Germination at the First Count (%) | Germination at the Final Count (%) | Abnormal Diseased Seedlings (%) | Dead Seeds (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control 1 | - | 30.0 | fg 2 | 31.3 | f | 45.0 | a | 23.7 | b–f |
Fungicide | - | 48.7 | a–d | 51.0 | a–d | 23.7 | d | 20.3 | d–f |
Distilled water | 30 | 43.3 | b–e | 44.7 | b–e | 31.7 | b–d | 23.0 | b–f |
35 | 39.7 | de | 43.3 | c–e | 38.7 | ab | 18.0 | f | |
40 | 43.7 | b–e | 47.7 | a–e | 30.7 | b–d | 21.7 | b–f | |
45 | 53.7 | a–c | 54.0 | a–c | 25.7 | d | 19.3 | ef | |
50 | 50.0 | a–d | 51.7 | a–d | 27.3 | cd | 21.0 | c–f | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 37.3 | ef | 41.0 | de | 36.3 | a–c | 22.7 | b–f |
35 | 45.7 | a–e | 49.0 | a–d | 24.3 | d | 26.7 | b–e | |
40 | 45.7 | a–e | 46.7 | a–e | 27.0 | cd | 26.3 | b–e | |
45 | 44.3 | a–e | 45.0 | b–e | 29.0 | b–d | 25.0 | b–f | |
50 | 43.3 | b–e | 46.3 | a–e | 33.3 | b–d | 20.3 | d–f | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 47.0 | a–e | 49.0 | a–d | 30.7 | b–d | 20.0 | d–f |
35 | 44.0 | a–e | 46.0 | a–e | 29.7 | b–d | 24.3 | b–f | |
40 | 42.7 | c–e | 44.0 | c–e | 28.3 | b–d | 27.7 | b–d | |
45 | 40.3 | de | 44.0 | c–e | 30.7 | b–d | 25.3 | b–f | |
50 | 27.7 | g | 37.0 | ef | 33.3 | b–d | 29.3 | b | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 54.3 | ab | 55.3 | ab | 24.3 | d | 19.7 | ef |
35 | 54.7 | a | 56.0 | a | 22.7 | d | 21.3 | b–f | |
40 | 42.7 | c–e | 44.0 | c–e | 25.7 | d | 28.7 | bc | |
45 | 36.3 | fe | 41.7 | de | 27.7 | cd | 27.3 | b–e | |
50 | 5.3 | h | 12.0 | g | 26.3 | cd | 52.7 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Percent of Seeds Infested with | Seeds Free of Fungi (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Alternaria zinniae | Fusarium spp. | |||||||
Control 1 | - | 92.0 | b 2 | 26.5 | a–d | 91.0 | a–c | 0 | i |
Fungicide | - | 65.5 | fg | 20.0 | b–g | 60.5 | g–i | 1.5 | gh |
Distilled water | 30 | 94.5 | ab | 27.5 | a–d | 95.0 | ab | 0 | i |
35 | 87.0 | b–d | 20.5 | b–g | 85.5 | cd | 0 | i | |
40 | 90.0 | bc | 27.0 | a–d | 90.0 | bc | 0 | i | |
45 | 89.5 | bc | 30.5 | ab | 87.5 | cd | 0 | i | |
50 | 98.0 | a | 26.0 | a–e | 96.0 | a | 0 | i | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 92.5 | bc | 24.5 | a–f | 81.0 | de | 0.5 | hi |
35 | 87.0 | bc | 30.5 | ab | 83.5 | cd | 0 | i | |
40 | 84.5 | cd | 29.0 | a–c | 74.0 | ef | 1.0 | hi | |
45 | 72.5 | ef | 27.0 | a–d | 64.5 | f–h | 4.0 | g | |
50 | 56.5 | g | 25.0 | a–e | 42.5 | jk | 17.0 | de | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 78.0 | de | 34.5 | a | 72.0 | e–g | 0.5 | hi |
35 | 62.0 | fg | 14.0 | g | 53.0 | h–j | 10.0 | f | |
40 | 62.5 | fg | 19.5 | c–g | 61.0 | g–i | 13.0 | ef | |
45 | 60.0 | g | 18.0 | d–g | 51.0 | i–k | 16.0 | de | |
50 | 15.0 | i | 5.5 | h | 7.5 | lm | 66.5 | b | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 60.0 | g | 18.0 | d–g | 49.5 | i–k | 8.0 | f |
35 | 54.5 | g | 16.5 | e–g | 40.5 | k | 22.0 | d | |
40 | 27.0 | h | 15.0 | fg | 15.0 | l | 53.0 | c | |
45 | 13.0 | i | 6.0 | h | 6.5 | mn | 72.0 | b | |
50 | 2.0 | j | 4.0 | h | 3.0 | n | 84.5 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Percent of Seeds Infested with | Seeds Free of Fungi (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Alternaria Zinniae | Fusarium spp. | |||||||
Control 1 | - | 72.0 | a 2 | 77.5 | Ab | 64.0 | c | 0 | i |
Fungicide | - | 24.5 | d–f | 39.5 | Gh | 23.0 | fg | 20.5 | ef |
Distilled water | 30 | 70.0 | a | 68.0 | Bc | 71.5 | bc | 0 | i |
35 | 74.0 | a | 66.5 | Cd | 81.5 | a | 0 | i | |
40 | 69.0 | a | 72.0 | a–c | 78.0 | ab | 0 | i | |
45 | 72.0 | a | 69.5 | a–c | 64.5 | c | 0 | i | |
50 | 77.0 | a | 78.0 | A | 75.0 | ab | 0 | i | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 52.0 | b | 56.5 | De | 43.0 | d | 7.0 | h |
35 | 39.5 | c | 46.5 | e–g | 40.0 | de | 6.5 | h | |
40 | 38.5 | c | 51.5 | Fg | 38.5 | de | 10.0 | gh | |
45 | 36.0 | cd | 49.0 | e–g | 37.0 | de | 16.5 | fg | |
50 | 34.5 | cd | 44.5 | Fg | 33.0 | d-f | 19.0 | f | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 33.5 | c–e | 48.5 | e–g | 34.5 | de | 11.0 | gh |
35 | 31.0 | c–f | 44.0 | Fg | 34.5 | de | 21.0 | ef | |
40 | 22.0 | ef | 39.0 | Gh | 21.5 | g | 29.5 | de | |
45 | 21.0 | f | 31.0 | Hi | 30.0 | e–g | 36.5 | cd | |
50 | 4.5 | h | 23.5 | Ij | 6.0 | h | 65.0 | a | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 32.5 | c–f | 40.5 | f–h | 20.0 | g | 24.5 | ef |
35 | 28.5 | c–f | 38.5 | Gh | 19.5 | g | 21.5 | ef | |
40 | 12.5 | g | 22.0 | Ij | 7.5 | h | 54.0 | b | |
45 | 8.0 | g | 27.5 | I | 7.5 | h | 45.5 | bc | |
50 | 2.0 | h | 17.0 | J | 5.5 | h | 64.5 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Percent of Seeds Infested with | Seeds Free of Fungi (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Alternaria Zinniae | Fusarium spp. | |||||||
Control 1 | - | 76.5 | a 2 | 71.5 | A | 66.5 | cd | 0 | g |
Fungicide | - | 20.5 | fg | 32.0 | c | 26.5 | fg | 26.0 | d |
Distilled water | 30 | 72.0 | a | 28.5 | c | 84.5 | a | 0 | g |
35 | 68.5 | ab | 63.5 | ab | 73.5 | bc | 0 | g | |
40 | 59.5 | bc | 38.0 | c | 84.5 | a | 0 | g | |
45 | 67.5 | ab | 57.0 | b | 85.0 | a | 0 | g | |
50 | 72.0 | a | 54.5 | b | 75.5 | a–c | 0 | g | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 53.0 | c | 5.5 | d–f | 77.0 | a–c | 1.0 | g |
35 | 35.5 | d | 11.0 | d | 81.5 | ab | 5.5 | f | |
40 | 35.5 | d | 8.0 | de | 69.5 | c | 11.0 | ef | |
45 | 30.0 | d–f | 4.0 | e–g | 66.5 | cd | 10.5 | ef | |
50 | 22.5 | e–g | 8.0 | de | 50.0 | e | 7.5 | f | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 32.0 | de | 5.5 | d–f | 76.5 | a–c | 9.0 | ef |
35 | 23.5 | ef | 4.0 | e–g | 52.5 | e | 24.5 | d | |
40 | 22.0 | fg | 7.5 | de | 56.0 | de | 25.0 | d | |
45 | 20.5 | fg | 1.5 | gh | 35.0 | f | 40.0 | c | |
50 | 1.5 | hi | 1.0 | gh | 3.0 | i | 86.0 | a | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 23.0 | ef | 3.5 | e–g | 72.5 | bc | 13.5 | e |
35 | 13.5 | g | 2.0 | f–h | 25.0 | g | 48.0 | c | |
40 | 4.0 | h | 3.0 | e–g | 13.0 | h | 71.0 | b | |
45 | 4.5 | hi | 3.0 | e–g | 14.0 | h | 71.5 | b | |
50 | 1.0 | i | 0 | h | 2.5 | i | 89.0 | a |
Treatment | Treatment Time (s) | Percent of Seeds Infested with | Seeds Free of Fungi (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Alternaria zinniae | Fusarium spp. | |||||||
Control 1 | - | 41.0 | ab 2 | 19.0 | b–e | 95.5 | a–c | 0 | h |
Fungicide | - | 10.5 | d–f | 10.0 | f–h | 74.0 | fg | 3.0 | fg |
Distilled water | 30 | 48.0 | a | 19.5 | b–e | 98.0 | a | 0 | h |
35 | 40.5 | ab | 19.5 | b–e | 91.0 | cd | 0 | h | |
40 | 52.5 | a | 22.0 | a–d | 92.5 | b–d | 0 | h | |
45 | 48.5 | a | 26.0 | a–c | 94.5 | a–c | 0 | h | |
50 | 47.5 | a | 31.5 | a | 97.5 | ab | 0 | h | |
MW 500 W | 30 | 42.5 | ab | 29.0 | ab | 91.0 | cd | 0 | h |
35 | 19.0 | c | 25.0 | a–c | 95.5 | a–c | 0 | h | |
40 | 35.0 | b | 28.0 | ab | 91.5 | cd | 0 | h | |
45 | 33.5 | b | 29.0 | ab | 91.5 | b–d | 0 | h | |
50 | 11.5 | c–e | 16.5 | c–f | 75.5 | fg | 7.5 | f | |
MW 650 W | 30 | 15.5 | cd | 18.0 | b–e | 91.0 | cd | 1.5 | gh |
35 | 18.0 | cd | 18.5 | b–e | 87.5 | de | 1.0 | gh | |
40 | 20.0 | c | 18.5 | b–e | 80.5 | ef | 4.0 | f | |
45 | 12.0 | c–e | 8.0 | gh | 61.0 | h | 21.5 | d | |
50 | 1.5 | g | 4.5 | hi | 15.9 | j | 70.0 | b | |
MW 750 W | 30 | 12.5 | cd | 24.5 | a–c | 67.5 | gh | 13.0 | e |
35 | 5.5 | ef | 12.0 | e–g | 40.0 | i | 40.0 | c | |
40 | 5.5 | f | 13.5 | d–g | 48.5 | i | 42.0 | c | |
45 | 0.5 | g | 7.0 | gh | 12.0 | jk | 69.0 | b | |
50 | 1.0 | g | 2.0 | i | 7.5 | k | 79.0 | a |
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Szopińska, D.; Dorna, H. Enhancing Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) Seed Quality through Microwaves Application. Agronomy 2023, 13, 1241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051241
Szopińska D, Dorna H. Enhancing Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) Seed Quality through Microwaves Application. Agronomy. 2023; 13(5):1241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051241
Chicago/Turabian StyleSzopińska, Dorota, and Hanna Dorna. 2023. "Enhancing Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) Seed Quality through Microwaves Application" Agronomy 13, no. 5: 1241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051241
APA StyleSzopińska, D., & Dorna, H. (2023). Enhancing Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) Seed Quality through Microwaves Application. Agronomy, 13(5), 1241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051241