Dry or Wet? Evaluating the Initial Rice Cultivation Environment on the Korean Peninsula
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Charred Grains for the Analaysis
2.2. Bulk Isotope Analysis of Charred Crop Remains
2.3. Statistics
3. Results
3.1. δ13C in Charred C3 and C4 Crop Grains
3.2. δ15N in Rice and Other Crop Grains
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Site Information
- The Gyo-dong site (37°45′ N, 128°53′ E) is located in Gangneung City, Gangwon-do Province, where residential land development led to the excavation. One Early Bronze Age dwelling pit (no. 1) was excavated in which plenty of charred rice grains were recovered from within the floor. (Baek, H-K., Ji, H-B. and Park, Y-K., 2002. Report on the Excavation of Gyo-dong site in Gangneung. Gangneun: Gangneun University Museum (in Korean).)
- The Sacheon-ri site (38°20′ N, 128°14′ E) is located in Goseong County, Gangwon-do Province, where railway construction led to the excavation. Two Early Bronze Age dwelling pits were excavated. Charred rice was directly collected from the dwellings (no. C-5 and C-8). The former was analyzed in this study. (Yi, C-H., Ra, K-H., Kim, J-H., Sin, Y-R. and No, H-J., 2002. Report on the Excavation of Sacheon-ri site in Goseong. Chuncheon: Gangwon Research Institute of Cultural Properties (in Korean).)
- The Baekseok-dong site (36°86′ N, 127°12′ E) is located in Cheonan City, South Chungcheong Province, where residential land development led to the excavation, which unearthed as many as 73 dwelling pits belonging to the Early Bronze Age. Together, with previously excavated settlements, this site is considered to be one of the most large-scale settlement sites in the Korean Bronze Age. Charred seed remains were collected by water flotation, which was undertaken on the soil from a dwelling pit (no. II-10). (Oh, G-J., Yi, P-S., Bae, S-H., Ahn, S-T. and Choi, K-S., 2009. Report on the Excavation of Baekseok-dong Gojaemigol site in Cheonan. Gongju: Chungcheong Institute of Cultural Heritage (in Korean).)
- The Jagae-ri site (36°79′ N, 126°67′ E) is located in Dangjin City, South Chungcheong province, where highway construction led to the excavation, which resulted in a Bronze Age settlement consisting of nine dwelling pits. Seed remains were systematically collected by flotation. Charred remains from the soil taken from dwelling pits (no. 48 and 54) were used for the analysis in this study. (Na, G-J., 2006. Report on the Excavation of Jagae-ri site in Dangjin. Gongju: Chungcheong Institute of Cultural Heritage (in Korean).)
- The Yongheung-ri site (35°53′ N, 127°09′ E) is located in Wanju County, North Jeolla Province, which was excavated as a developer-led project because of highway construction. Rice grains were collected from sediment recovered from the floor of a dwelling pit (no.1). This dwelling pit is one of 14 belonging to the Proto-Three Kingdoms period at this site, together with other cereal grains such as millet and bean, as well as charcoal, parts of which were analyzed in this study. (Kim, G-J, Yangm Y-S and Ahn, H-J., 2008. Report on the Excavation of Yongheung-ri in Wanju, Jeollabuk-do. Imsil: Jeonbuk Cultural Property Research Institute (in Korean).)
- The Simpo-ri site (35°85′ N, 126°71′ E) is located in Gimje City, North Jeolla Province. A dwelling pit belonging to the Proto-Three Kingdoms period was found due to an academic general survey. Plenty of rice grains were excavated from the pit with burned soil in the dwelling pit. (Kim, J-K and Na, W-S., 1999. On the Charred remains excavated from the Simpo-ri site in Gimje. Report on the General survey of the coastal area in Buan Cheonan. Jeonju: Jeonju National Museum (in Korean).)
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Site | Feature | Age/ Phase | Sample Nr. | δ13C (‰) | 14C Age BP | Calibrated Age (1σ) | Calibrated Age (2σ) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gyo-dong | Dwelling no. 1 | Middle EBA (EBA1) | PED-11437 | −26.2 ± 0.11 | 2860 ± 20 | 1103–1100 BC (1.3%) 1077–1071 BC (2.6%) 1055–984 BC (64.3%) | 1115–972 BC (88.0%) 957–932 BC (7.5%) |
Sacheon-ri | Dwelling C−5 | Late EBA(EBA2) | MTC-13232 | −26.2 ± 0.20 | 2810 ± 150 | 1193–1176 BC (2.5%) 1159–1145 BC (2.3%) 1129–813 BC (63.5%) | 1421–750 BC (93.6%) 685–667 BC (0.5%) 636–588 BC (1.2%) 579–572 BC (0.1%) |
Baekseok-dong | Dwelling II−10 | Late EBA(EBA2) | PED-16765 | −24.6 ± 0.17 | 2830 ± 20 | 1012–971 BC (43.7%) 957–932 BC (24.6%) | 1048–920 BC (95.4%) |
Jagae-ri | Early LBA | −25.9 ± 0.19 | 2480 ± 20 | 753–725 BC (14.3%) 706–683 BC (11.4%) 668–664 BC (2.2%) 651–632 BC (9.9%) 624–611 BC (5.8%) 592–545 BC (24.7%) | 767–537 BC (94.0%) 530–519 BC (1.5%) | ||
Youngheung-ri | Dwelling no. 2 | PTK | PED-11438 | −26.4 ± 0.12 | 1735 ± 20 | 254–287 AD (29.8%) 324–363 AD (38.5%) | 249–402 AD (36.5%) 308–402 AD (58.9%) |
Simpo-ri | Dwelling no. 1 | PTK | PED-11439 | −25.9 ± 0.18 | 1740 ± 20 | 252–291 AD (32.9%) 320–353 AD (35.4%) | 246–383 AD (95.4%) |
Site | Age/Phase | Plant Species | Sample Number | %C | %N | δ13C (‰) | δ15N (‰) | C/N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−2 | 50.9 | 2.3 | −25.9 | 6.1 | 26.3 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−3 | 49.9 | 2.2 | −25.9 | 5.6 | 26.2 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−4 | 54.3 | 1.9 | −25.6 | 5.5 | 33.9 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−5 | 47.5 | 2.2 | −24.9 | 5.6 | 24.9 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−6 | 56.1 | 2.1 | −25.7 | 5.9 | 31.0 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−7 | 44.5 | 2.3 | −25.5 | 6.2 | 22.6 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−8 | 51.7 | 1.9 | −25.6 | 7.3 | 32.4 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−9 | 59.3 | 2.5 | −25.7 | 4.9 | 28.2 |
Gyo-dong | Middle EBA (EBA1) | Oryza sativa | Gyo-dong−10 | 54.1 | 1.6 | −25.8 | 4.1 | 39.2 |
Sacheon-ri | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | SCR-r1 | 39.5 | 2.0 | −26.2 | 10.9 | 22.8 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 b | 50.4 | 1.7 | −26.2 | 7.3 | 34.7 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 c | 47.9 | 2.0 | −26.1 | 7.6 | 28.3 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 d | 46.8 | 1.4 | −26.5 | 4.5 | 39.2 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 e | 58.2 | 1.9 | −25.4 | 6.6 | 35.6 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 f | 53.1 | 1.9 | −24.4 | 6.2 | 32.0 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 g | 51.5 | 1.6 | −26.1 | 5.7 | 38.5 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 h | 50.1 | 2.0 | −25.8 | 7.2 | 28.6 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 i | 49.9 | 1.7 | −24.3 | 6.2 | 35.1 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 j | 51.8 | 1.4 | −26.0 | 6.1 | 44.7 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Oryza sativa | BSGII 10J2 k | 41.1 | 1.2 | −25.5 | 5.7 | 38.8 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Setaria italica | PTKBSGII 10J2 o/p/q | 51.2 | 2.6 | −9.0 | 5.2 | 23.2 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Setaria italica | BSGII 10J2 r/s/t | 57.6 | 2.2 | −9.0 | 4.5 | 30.8 |
Baekseok-dong | Late EBA (EBA2) | Setaria italica | BSGII 10J2 u/v/x | 53.3 | 2.2 | −8.8 | 4.6 | 27.8 |
Jagae-ri | Early LBA | Oryza sativa | D48-2 | 45.1 | 2.6 | −25.0 | 7.1 | 20.4 |
Jagae-ri | Early LBA | Oryza sativa | D48-3 | 51.5 | 1.9 | −26.6 | 7.3 | 31.0 |
Jagae-ri | Early LBA | Oryza sativa | D54-1 | 59.3 | 2.3 | −26.1 | 4.7 | 29.7 |
Jagae-ri | Early LBA | Oryza sativa | D54-2 | 56.7 | 1.6 | −25.5 | 4.5 | 40.6 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r1 | 60.4 | 1.7 | −25.7 | 4.1 | 40.9 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r5 | 47.7 | 1.6 | −25.1 | 5.7 | 34.6 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r6 | 58.3 | 1.8 | −23.9 | 7.7 | 36.9 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r7 | 56.9 | 1.5 | −24.7 | 3.8 | 42.9 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r8 | 51.1 | 2.1 | −24.0 | 5.7 | 28.9 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r9 | 57.9 | 1.5 | −24.8 | 4.9 | 46.4 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r10 | 48.9 | 1.6 | −24.2 | 6.2 | 36.5 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | YHR-r11 | 58.4 | 1.7 | −25.4 | 5.3 | 41.0 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Vigna angularis | YHR-a1 | 48.2 | 4.2 | −26.4 | 4.6 | 13.4 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Vigna angularis | YHR-a2 | 53.5 | 3.9 | −26.2 | 1.2 | 16.2 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Vigna angularis | YHR-a3 | 40.8 | 2.6 | −24.8 | 1.3 | 18.4 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Vigna angularis | YHR-a4 | 48.1 | 3.8 | −25.3 | 1.1 | 14.6 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Vigna angularis | YHR-a5 | 59.0 | 5.3 | −24.9 | 0.1 | 13.0 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Triticum aestivum | YHR-w1 | 48.1 | 2.6 | −24.5 | 5.6 | 21.4 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Triticum aestivum | YHR-w2 | 52.6 | 2.9 | −24.0 | 3.9 | 21.5 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Triticum aestivum | YHR-w3 | 56.2 | 3.1 | −24.4 | 2.4 | 21.0 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Triticum aestivum | YHR-w4 | 57.6 | 3.1 | −23.0 | 3.5 | 21.8 |
Youngheung-ri | PTK | Triticum aestivum | YHR-w5 | 54.7 | 3.5 | −23.7 | 3.4 | 18.3 |
Simpo-ri | PTK | Oryza sativa | SPR-r1 | 57.6 | 2.0 | −24.2 | 3.3 | 33.6 |
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Shoda, S.; Nasu, H.; Yamazaki, K.; Murakami, N.; Na, G.-J.; Ahn, S.-M.; Yoneda, M. Dry or Wet? Evaluating the Initial Rice Cultivation Environment on the Korean Peninsula. Agronomy 2021, 11, 929. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050929
Shoda S, Nasu H, Yamazaki K, Murakami N, Na G-J, Ahn S-M, Yoneda M. Dry or Wet? Evaluating the Initial Rice Cultivation Environment on the Korean Peninsula. Agronomy. 2021; 11(5):929. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050929
Chicago/Turabian StyleShoda, Shinya, Hiroo Nasu, Kohei Yamazaki, Natsuki Murakami, Geon-Ju Na, Sung-Mo Ahn, and Minoru Yoneda. 2021. "Dry or Wet? Evaluating the Initial Rice Cultivation Environment on the Korean Peninsula" Agronomy 11, no. 5: 929. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050929