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Article

Soil Respiration under 90 Year-Old Rye Monoculture and Crop Rotation in the Climate Conditions of Central Poland

by
Tomasz Sosulski
1,
Magdalena Szymańska
1,*,
Ewa Szara
1 and
Piotr Sulewski
2
1
Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agriculture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-766 Warsaw, Poland
2
Institute of Economics and Finances, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2021, 11(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010021
Submission received: 1 November 2020 / Revised: 21 December 2020 / Accepted: 23 December 2020 / Published: 24 December 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Long-Term Experiments for Sustainable Nutrient Management)
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Abstract

:
This study, aimed at assessing the rate of soil respiration under different crop rotation and fertilization conditions, was carried out on long-term (since 1923) experimental plots with rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation in Skierniewice (Central Poland). The treatments included mineral-organic (CaNPK+M) and organic (Ca+M) fertilization (where M is farmyard manure). Soil respiration was measured in situ by means of infrared spectroscopy using a portable FTIR spectrometer Alpha. CO2 fluxes from CaNPK+M-treated soils under cereals cultivated in monoculture and crop rotations were not statically different. Respiration of soil under lupine cultivated in crop rotation was higher than under cereals. N-fertilization and its succeeding effect increased soil respiration, and significantly altered its distribution over the growing season. Our results indicate that in the climatic conditions of Central Europe, respiration of sandy soils is more dependent on the crop species and fertilization than on the crop rotation system. Omission of mineral fertilization significantly decreases soil respiration. The CO2 fluxes were positively correlated with soil temperature, air temperature, and soil content of NO3− and NH4+.

1. Introduction

Arable land plays a fundamental role in global carbon cyclical exchange between the lithosphere and atmosphere [1,2]. Cultivated soils are considered both a source and sink of atmospheric CO2 [3,4]. According to Ding et al. [5] and Paustian et al. [6], 25–29% of anthropogenic CO2 input to the atmosphere can be assumed to come from cultivated soils. Therefore, arable land is considered an important source of CO2 loss to the atmosphere [7]. The key factors affecting soil respiration include content of soil organic carbon, fertilization, temperature and soil moisture, and soil tillage intensity [8,9,10,11]. Numerous scientific papers have shown that the most important drivers of soil respiration are both air/soil temperature and soil moisture [12,13]. Buragienė et al. [14] and Bogužas et al. [15], however, found a negative correlation between soil CO2 fluxes and temperature. Negative influence of soil moisture on soil respiration has also been described in literature [16,17]. Higher content of soil organic carbon contributes to a higher rate of CO2 soil respiration [12]. Different cropping systems and mineral/organic fertilization can significantly alter the content of organic carbon in the soil [18]. An increase in soil organic carbon observed in mineral treated soil was lower than that observed by manure fertilization [18,19]. Sosulski and Korc [19] found that mineral fertilizers (no application of organic amendments) led to an increase in organic carbon content in soil. Although mineral NPK fertilizers were applied, nitrogen was the main contributor to increase inorganic carbon content in the soil. Higher organic carbon content in the mineral fertilized soils resulted from greater input of crop residues in comparison to non-treated soils [20]. In addition to promoting higher crop biomass production, mineral fertilization, in particularly nitrogen, intensifies the microbial processes responsible for soil organic matter decomposition. Sainju et al. [10] and Song and Zhang [13] observed that soil respiration from N-fertilized soils was higher by 14% than that from non-fertilized soils. The effect of nitrogen fertilization on soil respiration is not always observed. For example, Zhang et al. [21] found a 4% increase in root respiration after NPK fertilization, while Alluvione et al. [16] and Zhai et al. [22] reported that N-fertilization did not affect soil respiration. Moreover, Ding et al. [23] reported that N-fertilization decreased CO2 soil fluxes by 10.5%. The negative influence of applying high nitrogen fertilizer rates on soil respiration was also reported by Song and Zhang [13]. Pareja-Sánchez et al. [24] found that the effect of nitrogen fertilization could be different depending on the tillage conditions. Grant at al. [25] reported that it may be difficult to determine the influence of N-fertilization on CO2 soil emissions. For example, the authors found only a slight increase in CO2 soil fluxes after increasing and decreasing the rate of nitrogen fertilizer by 50%. However, the influence of soil manuring on soil respiration tends to be more pronounced. An increase in soil respiration after solid and liquid manure application has been observed in several studies [21,22,26,27].
The effect of soil tillage is broadly discussed in international scientific literature [7,10,24,28]. Nonetheless, literature reports have provided divergent opinions on the effect of different cropping systems on soil respiration. For example, Omonode et al. [29] found higher CO2 soil fluxes under continuous corn than under corn cultivated in rotation. Campbell et al. [30] also reported that soil respiration under corn after corn cultivation was higher in comparison to corn after soybean cultivation. Shen et al. [31] reported that maize monoculture had greater direct greenhouse gas emission (GHG) than the maize soybean intercrop treatment, although it was the largest C sink due to its higher net primary production. On the other hand, Norberg et al. [32] stated that soil respiration was not affected by crop rotation. However, Herridge and Brock [33] found that CO2 fluxes under canola were higher than those from soil under pea. This suggest that soil respiration for different plant species can vary.
Discrepancies in the results of international research on soil respiration from different cultivated and fertilized soils in varied climatic and soil conditions limit the ability to distinguish between the effects of cropping systems (including monoculture and crop rotation) and the effects of fertilization of sandy soils occurring in Central and Eastern Europe. These soils are usually characterized by low content of organic matter, and lower yielding potential affected by the soil water regime and low nutrients content [18]. An improvement of soil properties is usually obtained through mineral-organic fertilization, remaining a typical practice in Polish agricultural conditions. In order to provide an insight into the effects of crop rotation and fertilization on soil respiration, we conducted a study on a 90 year-old long-term field (since 1923) experiment located in Skierniewice (Central Poland) to quantify soil respiration under a rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation system. The objective was to determine the effect of environmental factors, different crop rotations and cultivation of legumes, and mineral fertilization on soil respiration.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experiments

The research was carried out in 2012 and 2013 on two long-term field experiments in Skierniewice (51°96′60″ N, 20°16′63″ E, Central Poland) belonging to the Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, maintained with no alterations since 1923. The soil is Luvisols (FAO 2006) of the type of loamy sand with the following fractions in the 0–25 cm layer (Ap horizon): 7% < 0.002 mm; 5% 0.002 to 0.05 mm; 87% > 0.05 mm, in the 26–45 cm layer (Eet horizon): 5% < 0.002 mm; 5% 0.002 to 0.05 mm; 90% > 0.05 mm, below 45 cm of depth (Bt/C horizon) 14% < 0.002 mm; 8% 0.002 to 0.05 mm; 78% > 0.05 mm.
Plants were cultivated using two different cropping systems:
−
Experiment E—5-field crop rotation: potatoes, spring barley, yellow lupine, winter wheat, rye—in the years of the study, spring barley (2012) and yellow lupine (2013) were cultivated,
−
Experiment D—rye monoculture.
Both experiments were conducted in a randomized block design in 5 replications with an experimental plot area of 36 m2. The investigation was conducted on Experiment D (mineral fertilizers and manure, CaNPK+M) and Experiment E (mineral fertilizers and manure, CaNPK+M and solely with manure, Ca+M). Manure was applied at a rate of 30 t ha−1 in 4-year intervals on CaNPK+M treatment of the experiment with rye monoculture, and at the same rate every 5 years (potatoes) on both Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments in Experiment E. On both experiments, the investigations were conducted in the 2nd and 3rd year after soil manuring. On the mineral fertilized treatments (CaNPK+M) of both Experiments (D and E), mineral fertilizers were applied at the following rates: 90 kg N (ammonium nitrate), 26 kg P (triple superphosphate), and 91 kg K ha−1 (potassium chloride 50%). Lupine cultivated in Experiment E was not treated with nitrogen fertilizers. Lime was applied every four years (1.6 t CaO ha–1) as CaCO3 in fields with rye monoculture (D), and every five years (2 t CaO ha–1) in field E with crop rotation. On Experiment E, spring barley was cultivated in 2012, and yellow lupine in 2013. Yields of barley and lupine cultivated in Experiment E, and rye in Experiment D were measured on all replications under both treatments. Atmospheric conditions and soil temperatures were measured by the Experimental Field’s Meteorological Station.

2.2. CO2-C Emissions Measurement

CO2-C fluxes from the soil were measured in situ by means of a portable FT-IR spectrometer model Alpha (Bruker, Germany). Soil respiration (F) was calculated as the increase in the amount of CO2-C in the chamber (ø = 29.5 cm, h = 20 cm) after 10 min. exposure to the soil surface in accordance with the equation presented by Burton et al. [34]:
F = Δ C Δ t · V c   · M m o l A   · V m o l
where: ΔC/Δt is the rate of change in CO2-C concentration inside the chamber, Vc is the total volume of the chamber, A is the surface area of the chamber, Mmol is molar mass of CO2-C, and Vmol is the molar volume of CO2-C inside the chamber corrected for air temperature using the ideal gas law. Soil respiration was expressed in kg CO2-C ha−1 d−1. In 2012, the measurements were conducted on 30 test dates between 22-MAR and 22-OCT, and in 2013 on 27 test dates between 19-APR and 16-OCT in all replications. Cumulative soil respiration (i.e., kg CO2-C ha−1) was calculated by linear interpolation between two close sampling dates and numerical integration of the function over time, assuming that fluxes changed linearly among sampling days [35].

2.3. Soil and Plant Analysis

For NO3--N and NH4+-N soil content determination, soil sampling was conducted on all measurement dates in all replications of the examined treatments on both experiments from the Ap horizon (0–25 cm depth). Soil content of both mineral forms of nitrogen was presented in our previous works [36,37]. On a single occasion in 2012 and 2013, soil samples were also collected in autumn from three soil horizons: Ap (0–25 cm), Eet (26-45 cm), and Bt (below 45 cm) from all experimental replications. In soil samples collected in autumn, soil organic carbon (SOC) was measured by means of a Thermo Electron-C TOC-500 instrument (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). Soil total nitrogen (TN) content was measured in the same soil samples. Soil TN content and N content in grain and straw of all cultivated plants were measured in samples collected after harvest in 2012 and 2013 by means of a Vapodest model (Gerhardt, Bonn, Germany) VAP 30 analyzer distillation system. Soil moisture was assessed for each sample as a decrease in sample weight after oven-drying in 105 °C.

2.4. Data Analysis

The statistical analysis employed was analyzed using the Statistica PL 13.3 software (Tulsa, OK, USA). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s (HSD) multiple-comparison test was carried out to determine statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen content in soil horizons, yields of plants, total nitrogen content, and nitrogen uptake by plants between different fertilization treatments. Data had been previously tested for normality distribution by a Shapiro-Wilk’s test. A Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to study the differences in soil respiration (p < 0.05). Spearman correlation analysis was used to evaluate correlations between soil CO2-C fluxes and atmospheric (Ta) and soil (Ts) temperature, soil moisture (WFPS), NO3−-N and NH4+-N soil content in Ap (0–25 cm) soil horizon and between cumulative soil respiration and content of SOC and total nitrogen (TN) in Ap, Eet, and Bt soil horizons, crop yields of grain and straw, content of total nitrogen in grain and straw, nitrogen uptake by crops (p < 0.05).

3. Results

3.1. Atmospheric Conditions

Average temperature was 8.1 °C in 2012, and 9.6 °C in 2013. The distribution of average monthly temperatures in 2012 and 2013 was higher than the multi-year average (Figure 1). Total precipitation in 2012 was 478.6 mm, and in 2013—618.5 mm. The distribution of precipitation in both years of the study differed from the multi-year average (1921–2013) (Figure 1). In 2013, there were periods of intense rainfall in May and June, causing temporary excess of water in the soil.

3.2. Soil Properties

Soil moisture and daily air and soil temperature were shown in our previous works [36,37]. Average soil moisture under the 5-crop rotation (E) in 2013 exceeded that of 2012 by approximately 53%, and under the monoculture (D) by approximately 36%. In most instances, the average daily soil temperature values slightly exceeded the respective air temperature values.
As expected, regardless of crop rotations and fertilization, the highest content of organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) was found in the top soil layer (Ap, 0–25 cm), lower in the Bt soil horizon (>45 cm), and the lowest in the Eet soil horizon (26–45 cm) (Table 1). The lowest content of SOC and TN in the studied soil horizons was found in Ca+M treatment of Experiment E (6.141, 1.720 and 2.212 g C kg−1 and 0.585, 0.183, and 0.254 g N kg−1 in Ap, Eet, and Bt soil horizons, respectively). The highest content of SOC and TN was found in the Ap soil horizon of CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment D with rye monoculture (8.802 g C kg−1 and 0.884 g N kg−1, respectively). SOC and TN content in this soil was higher by approximately 19.8% and 24.2%, respectively than in the analogous treatment (CaNPK+M) of Experiment E. In deeper soil horizons (Eet and Bt), content of SOC and TN in the soil of CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment E was higher than in Experiment D by approximately 5.4–37.3% and 16.2–32.5%, respectively. As a consequence of SOC and TN content in the soils, the C:N soil ratio fluctuated between 9.96 and 10.51 in Ap horizon, 9.68 and 10.00 in Eet horizon, and 8.02 and 8.87 in Bt horizon of the examined soils (Table 1).

3.3. Plants Yields and Nitrogen Uptake

The grain yields of cereals cultivated in both experiments (2012—spring barley on Experiment E, and 2012 and 2013—rye on Experiment D, respectively) were low (Table 2). In both years of the study, grain yields of rye were similar and did not exceed 2.39 t ha−1. Low yielding of rye was probably the result of the multifactoral effect of soil/weather conditions prevailing over the study period, and more likely the effect of 90 years of rye cultivation in monoculture. In 2012, rye straw yields were significantly higher than in 2013 by approximately 51.3%. The crop limiting factor in 2013 could have been soil moisture excess at the turn of May and June. As a consequence of yields and total nitrogen content in plants (12.7–16.0 g N kg−1 and 5.2–5.3 g kg−1 in grain and straw, respectively), total nitrogen uptake by rye reached 45.0 and 47.6 kg N ha−1 in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
Barley grain yields obtained on CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment E were significantly higher by 21.8% than on Ca+M treatment. Content of total nitrogen in barley cultivated in Experiment E depended on mineral fertilizer application, and was significantly higher in plants cultivated on CaNPK+M than on Ca+M treatment (19.8 and 13.5 g N kg−1 in grain, respectively). Total nitrogen uptake by barley cultivated on CaNPK+M treatment was twice as high as on Ca+M treatment. Lupine grain and straw yield was higher under mineral fertilization (1.56 t ha−1 and 8.45 t ha−1, respectively) than under Ca+M treatment (1.17 t ha−1 and 5.55 t ha−1, respectively). Content of total nitrogen in grain and straw of lupine cultivated on both examined treatments on Experiment E was similar. Consequently, the accumulation of nitrogen by lupine was higher under mineral fertilization (192.3 kg N ha−1) by approximately 46.5% than on Ca+M treatment (131.2 kg N ha−1).

3.4. Soil Respiration

Daily CO2-C soil fluxes in all the examined treatments of both experiments showed high variability (Table 3). In CaNPK+M treatment under rye monoculture, the flux ranges were 4.25–94.34 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 and 1.49–67.25 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The ranges of daily soil CO2-C fluxes under spring barley cultivated on Experiment E in 2012 were 0.93-102.53 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 and 0.72–72.24 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 on the CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments, respectively. On the same treatments in 2013, when yellow lupine was cultivated, CO2-C fluxes ranged 1.59–158.22 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 and 0.47–102.27 kg CO2-C ha−1day−1 for the CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments, respectively. The level and dynamics of CO2-C fluxes from the examined soils were different in both years of the study. The differences in distribution of daily CO2-C fluxes from the examined soils treated with CaNPK+M on Experiment E and Experiment D in 2012 were of no statistical significance (Table 3). The distribution of daily CO2-C fluxes from Ca+M soil in experiment E was lower than those recorded on both CaNPK+M treatments of Experiments E and D. In 2013, differences observed in distribution of daily CO2-C fluxes from different CaNPK+M treated soils under rye monoculture (Experiment D) and Ca+M under lupine in Experiment E were of no statistical significance, and were both lower than CO2-C fluxes from CaNPK+M treated soil in Experiment E (2013, lupine) (Table 3).

3.5. Distribution of CO2-C Soil Fluxes in 2012

At the beginning of the study period in 2012, daily CO2-C soil fluxes from all the examined soils in both experiments were very low (Figure 2). At the end of March, CO2-C fluxes from soil under rye monoculture gradually increased, whereas from both soils in Experiment E (CaNPK+M and Ca+M) they decreased. A peak in CO2-C soil fluxes with the monoculture rye treatment was observed on the 26th of April. A rapid increase in CO2-C soil fluxes was observed on the 20th of April on both CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments of Experiment E. A decrease in soil CO2-C fluxes from the studied soils were observed in mid-May. A subsequent peak of CO2-C soil emissions on CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment E was observed on the 7th of June. At the same time, some fluctuation of CO2-C soil fluxes with relatively low amplitude were recorded on both CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments of Experiments D and E, respectively. Between the 7th of June and the end of June, CO2-C fluxes decreased on all the examined soils and increased again on the 5th of July. From mid-July until the end of August, CO2-C fluxes from soil under rye monoculture (Experiment D, CaNPK+M) remained relatively low. On both studied treatments (CaNPK+M and Ca+M) on Experiment E, subsequent CO2-C soil emission peaks (lower than that from the beginning of July) were recorded on the 7th of August. On both treatments in Experiment E (CaNPK+M and Ca+M), CO2-C soil fluxes decreased substantially, and after a slight increase was observed at the end of August, they remained low until the end of the study period. CO2-C fluxes from soil under rye monoculture (Experiment D, CaNPK+M) increased noticeably at the beginning of September and remained relatively high until 18th of September. Further, until the end of the study period, CO2-C fluxes from soil of Experiment D were low.

3.6. Distribution of CO2-C Soil Fluxes in 2013

In April of 2013, CO2-C soil fluxes from the CaNPK+M and Ca+M treated soil in Experiment E were very low (Figure 2). At the end of April, CO2-C fluxes from soil under rye monoculture (Experiment D, CaNPK+M) increased and remained relatively high until the 29th of April. In early spring, CO2-C fluxes from soil in Experiment D were markedly higher than from the both examined treatments in Experiment E. An increase in CO2-C soil fluxes from CaNPK+M treated soil in Experiment E was recorded only in mid-May, whereas those on Ca+M treatment were low. During the flooding at the beginning of June 2013, no measurement was provided. The patterns of CO2-C soil fluxes during the second half of the growing season were consistent across the examined treatments on Experiment E (CaNPK+M and Ca+M). Over the 1st half of June, high CO2-C soil fluxes (with a maximum in mid-June) were observed on both CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments of Experiment E. A decrease in CO2-C fluxes from those soils was observed at the beginning of July. At the same time, CO2-C soil fluxes recorded on CaNPK+M treated soil under rye-monoculture were low, and increased notably only on the 6th of July, and at the turn of July and August. After a rapid increase on the 6th of July, CO2-C fluxes recorded on both soils (CaNPK+M and Ca+M) in Experiment E decreased between 11th of July and mid-August. Subsequently, CO2-C fluxes from CaNPK+M and Ca+M treated soils in Experiment E increased until 10th of September. A substantial increase in CO2-C soil emission from CaNPK+M treated soil in Experiment D was observed only on the 24th of September. After the peak of fluxes observed in September, CO2-C fluxes from all studied soils decreased gradually until the end of the study period in October.

3.7. Cumulative Soil Respiration

Cumulative respiration of soil treated with CaNPK+M under rye monoculture over the measurement period of 2012 was higher than in 2013 (mean 4989.5 ± 229.3 kg CO2-C ha−1 median 5043.1 and 3982.7 ± 284.2 kg CO2-C ha−1 median 4028.0, respectively) (Table 3). In 2012 and 2013, the highest amount of CO2-C was released from soil under rye-monoculture in May (25.1–21.8% of total soil respiration, respectively) (Figure 3). Cumulative soil respiration recorded under rye-monoculture in other months was lower, although a relatively high amount of CO2-C was released in April 2012 (17.9% of total soil respiration) and in months between July and September 2013 (19.6–16.4% of total soil respiration).
On CaNPK+M treatment in Experiment E in 2012 (barley) and 2013 (lupine), cumulative CO2-C soil emissions were 4809.2 kg CO2-C ha−1, median 4743.3 and 6997.5 kg CO2-C ha−1, median 7137.9, respectively (Table 3). The share of CO2-C released over May and June from CaNPK+M treated soil in Experiment E in 2012 (barley) was similar (25.6% and 25.9% of total soil respiration respectively), although the rate of soil respiration recorded in July was also relatively high (21.5% of total soil respiration) (Figure 3). It should be emphasized that in April 2012, the share of CO2-C released from soil under rye-monoculture (Experiment D) in total soil respiration was much higher than that recorded in the same month under barley cultivation (Experiment E). On the same treatment (CaNPK+M) of Experiment E in 2013 (lupine), the share of CO2-C released from soil in June and July reached 26% and 25.1% of total soil respiration, and 18.4% in May. Cumulative CO2-C soil emissions recorded on Ca+M treatment of Experiment E in 2012 (barley cultivation) was lower by approximately 1274 kg CO2-C ha−1 than on CaNPK+M treatment (Table 3). The share of CO2-C released in May, June, and July 2012 (barley) from soil exclusively fertilized with manure (Ca+M) reached 29%, 20%, and 18.5% of total soil respiration, respectively. The highest amount of CO2-C was released from Ca+M treated soil in July 2013 (lupine) (33.9% of total soil respiration), although relatively high soil respiration was also recorded in June (25.8% of total soil respiration).Irrespective of crop rotations and experimental fertilization, the cumulative soil respiration recorded in March and October (and on Experiment E in September) was negligible (1.3–5.6% of total soil respiration).

3.8. Correlation between Soil Respiration and Environmental Factors

CO2-C fluxes from soil were positively correlated with soil and atmospheric temperatures, and with soil content of NO3−-N and NH4+-N (Table 4). Soil content of both mineral forms of nitrogen and WFPS were presented in our previous works [36,37]. The relationship between CO2-C soil fluxes and soil moisture was described by a negative correlation coefficient.
Cumulative soil respiration was positively correlated with content of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in Eet and Bt soil horizons (Table 5). The correlation between cumulative soil respiration and content of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in Ap soil horizon was of statistical significance. Cumulative soil respiration was positively correlated with yield of barley grain, straw yields of rye, barley, and lupine, nitrogen content in grain of rye and barley, nitrogen content in straw of barley, and total nitrogen uptake by rye, barley, and lupine (Table 6).

4. Discussion

4.1. Effect of Temperature and Season

High variability of CO2-C fluxes from the examined soils (Figure 2, Table 3) suggests that the amount and distribution of CO2-C emissions from soils were dependent on several soil, climate, and agronomic factors. Among the soil/climatic factors considered in our study, CO2-C soil emissions showed the strongest positive correlation with soil temperature and, to a slightly lesser extent, with air temperature (Table 4). Ding et al. [5] reported that soil CO2-C fluxes are significantly affected by soil temperature below 20 °C. Bogužas et al. [15] showed that when temperature increases above 18 °C, the intensity of soil CO2-C flux decreases. Irrespective of the experimental fertilization and crop rotation, particularly CO2-C soil fluxes observed over May, June, and July were generally higher than those in periods from March to April and from August to October (Figure 3). In both years of the study, however, CO2-C fluxes fluctuated with a very high amplitude (Figure 2). During both summers, several peaks of gas emissions and extremely low fluxes were recorded. Intensive CO2-C soil fluxes over summer, and much lower in spring/autumn/winter periods have been described by several authors in numerous different soils and cultivation conditions [15,24,38]. An increase in soil and air temperature stimulates both plant growth and microbial activity in soil previously dormant during winter [39]. Lower CO2-C soil fluxes during fall transition than in spring coincide with a decrease in soil temperatures, soil moisture, and lower intensity of microbial and autotrophic processes. In our study, the cumulative soil respiration recorded in March was marginal (Figure 3). The share of CO2-C released from soil in April 2012 was similar to that found in September and October in experiment E (barley), and higher than in rye monoculture (Experiment D). A similar trend was observed over the next year of the study in rye monoculture. In contrast, cumulative respiration of both soils (Ca+M and CaNPK+M) in Experiment E recorded in September and October of 2013 (lupine) exceeded that from April. It means that the share of soil respiration recorded in April for total cumulative emissions depended on crop rotation and type of cultivated crops. In both years of the study, soil respiration recorded in April under rye monoculture (Experiment D) was substantially higher than under spring barley (2012) and lupine (2013) cultivated in Experiment E. This suggests that over early spring and autumn, soil respiration could have been driven by autotrophic respiration (result of root respiration and decomposition of root exudates) associated with winter-cereal growth when spring-crops either enter the dormancy or have been harvested. This hypothesis seems to be confirmed by higher soil respiration observed in March 2012 under rye monoculture than in Experiment E (5-crop rotation). In both years of the study, under rye monoculture, the highest amount of CO2-C was released from soil in May (21.8 and 25.1% in 2013 and 2012, respectively) (Figure 3), although soil respiration over the June-August period constituted 35.8 and 46.6% of cumulative soil respiration recorded over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013, respectively. High respiration of both soils (Ca+M and CaNPK+M) under barley cultivation in Experiment E in May was also observed. The contribution of CO2-C released in summer, however, reached 54.2% and 59.4% of cumulative respiration (Figure 3). High soil respiration under cereal recorded in both experiments in May was associated with intensive nitrogen uptake by crops, and must have resulted from intensive crop biomass production resulting in an increase in autotrophic respiration. In contrast, soil respiration recorded in May under lupine cultivated in Experiment E in 2013 was not dominant. On both CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments, soil respiration recorded during summer reached 63.9 and 75.3% of total gas emissions, respectively. Lee at al. [39] reported that the share of CO2-C released from soil in summer reached 47.4%, whereas over the spring-summer period it reached 80.1% of cumulative soil respiration.

4.2. Effect of Soil Moisture

The differences between soil respiration under rye monoculture in 2012 and 2013 were probably the result of different climatic conditions. In wet years (2013), soil CO2-C fluxes are usually higher than those in a dry year (2012). Bogužas et al. [15] found a strong and moderately strong correlation between the monthly amount of rainfall and soil CO2-C flux. Irrigation increased CO2-C flux by 13% compared with non-irrigation by increasing soil water content in North Dakota [10]. Song and Zhang [13] reported that the relationship between the CO2-C flux, soil moisture and soil temperature was linear. Soil temperature, however, played a more important role in regulating soil respiration than soil moisture [40]. On the other hand, Alluwione et al. [16] and Feiziene et al. [17] reported a decrease in soil respiration with an increase in soil moisture. In our study, the relationship between soil respiration and soil moisture was described by a negative correlation coefficient, low in terms of the absolute value (Table 4). The negative correlation between soil respiration and soil moisture could have resulted from distribution of soil moisture over the growing season—higher in colder months of spring and autumn and lower in summer.

4.3. Effect of Cropping System

According to Adviento-Borbe et al. [41] and Rochette et al. [42], the share of autotrophic respiration reached 24–50% of total CO2-C soil emissions. In our study, soil respiration was strongly positively correlated with the straw and occasionally grain (barley) yield, nitrogen content in grain of the cultivated cereals, and occasionally with nitrogen content in barley straw and nitrogen total uptake by crops (Table 6). Ding et al. [5] reported that cumulative CO2-C emission was strongly correlated with harvested maize biomass than with wheat biomass. Our results show the importance of autotrophic respiration in the cumulative soil respiration.
Cumulative soil respiration reached 4989.5 and 3982.7 kg CO2-C ha−1 in 2012 and 2013, respectively under rye monoculture, and 4809.2 and 3535.1 kg CO2-C ha−1, respectively on CaNPK+M and Ca+M treatments under barley (2012) cultivated in Experiment E (Table 3). The recorded amount of CO2-C released from soil corresponded with data in the literature for different cultivated crops (wheat, barley, oat, corn, and soybean cultivation and grassland) [28,41,43,44]. Abdalla et al. [7], investigating the influence of cultivation of different type of crops on soil respiration, pointed out that the key factors affecting its rate include the amount of crop residues remaining in the soil and method of soil tillage. Drury et al. [43] recorded approximately 45% greater CO2-C emissions under monoculture of winter wheat than under corn monoculture, or 51% greater emissions than those from soybean monoculture. In the corn phase of crop rotation, soil respiration was greater if the previous crop was winter wheat than if it was soybean. On the other hand, Norberg et al. [32] found insignificant differences between soil respiration under different crops in similar environmental conditions at 11 field sites in southern Sweden. Sainju et al. [10] also suggested that the cropping system had no effect on soil respiration. Rajaniemi et al. [45] found higher GHG emissions form soil under wheat than under oats and barley. Omonode et al. [29] reported that cumulative soil respiration recorded during the growing season was significantly affected by rotation. Their results show that soil respiration was significantly greater under continuous corn than under maize-soya crop rotation. Shifting from continuous corn rotation to soybean-corn or wheat-soybean-corn rotation decreased soil respiration. On the other hand, Abagandura et al. [46] reported that crop rotation diversity did not affect cumulative CO2-C soil emissions. In our study, soil respiration recorded in 2012 under rye-monoculture and barley cultivated in 5-crop rotation was similar.

4.4. Effect of Legumes Cultivation

Several studies showed that soil respiration under legumes was lower than under non-legumes crops [16,43]. Kalkhoran et al. [47] suggested that lupine can reduce emissions by 50% in comparison to a non-legume crops. In our study, soil respiration recorded on both treatments (CaNPK+M and Ca+M) under lupine cultivation (2013) in Experiment E (mean 6997.5 kg CO2-C ha−1, median 7137.9 and mean 4552.7 kg CO2-C ha−1 median 4617.7, respectively) was much higher than from soils under cereals. The obtained data confirmed the finding recently discussed in literature that legumes do not mitigate greenhouse gas soil emissions [33]. Jansen et al. [48] observed that the amount of CO2 respired from the root of N2-fixing legumes (e.g., 10–23 g CO2 per gram of N assimilated) could be higher than CO2 generated during N-fertilizer production (e.g., 2.6–3.7 g CO2 per gram of NH3–N produced). However, in contrast to CO2 derived from fossil fuels emitted during N fertilizers synthesis, CO2 respired during N2 fixation originates from photosynthesis, and will not represent a net contribution to atmospheric concentrations [48]. In our study, we found 192.3 and 131.2 kg N in grain and straw of lupine cultivated in experiment E in 2013 (Table 2). This means that 1 g N fixation cost was 34.7–53.3 g CO2-C ha−1.

4.5. Effect of Fertilization

Compared to CaNPK+M fertilization, omission of mineral fertilization in barley cultivation (Ca+M) decreased soil respiration by 36% (Table 3). In the 40-year long term experiment in Lyczyn (Central Poland), only nitrogen increased the content of organic carbon and total nitrogen in soil [19]. Therefore, it can be assumed that the increase in CO2-C emissions from soil was mainly due to the application of ammonium nitrate on CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment E. Nitrogen fertilization led to an increase in CO2-C soil respiration [17]. Alluvione at al. [16] reported that nitrogen fertilization had no effect on soil respiration, although the high nitrogen rates decrease CO2-C soil fluxes [13,23].
Adviento-Borbe et al. [41] reported that seasonal soil CO2-C fluxes depended less on soil NO3−-N content than on temperature, soil moisture, and crop residue. In our study, CO2-C soil fluxes were positively correlated with NO3−-N and NH4+-N soil content (r = 0.48 and r = 41, p < 0.05, respectively), although to a lesser extent than with air and soil temperature (Table 4). Nitrogen fertilization intensifies various processes of biotic N transformation in the soil [49]. Microbial N-cycling drives microbial carbon soil metabolism [50]; therefore, elevated availability of nitrogen for decomposers results in intensive heterotrophic respiration [24]. In our previous study the highest soil CO2-C fluxes were recorded during the fast plant development stage, concurrent with high NO3−-N content in the soil [51]. Consequently, we concluded that increase soil N availability also promotes autotrophic soil respiration. After 90 years of experiments, varied fertilization and cropping system significantly influenced the soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) content in the studied soils (Table 1). SOC and TN content in the topsoil on CaNPK+M treatment of Experiment D (rye monoculture) was higher by 19.8% and 24.2%, respectively than on the analogous treatment (CaNPK+M) under 5-crop rotation (Experiment E). Higher accumulation of organic carbon in soil under rye monoculture suggests that soil respiration could have been lower in rye monoculture than in the 5-crop rotation. However, no significant difference in the cumulative soil respiration of both soils was proven. Lower than expected differences in soil CO2 emissions in both of the cropping systems evaluated probably resulted from lower input of manure in both experiments. Manure was applied once every four years in Experiment D, and every five years in Experiment E at the same rates (30 t ha−1). Among the analyzed factors, manure fertilization proved to have the greatest influence on content of organic carbon and content of total nitrogen in soil [19,52]. Content of organic carbon and total nitrogen in the Ap soil horizon of CaNPK+M treatment in Experiment E was higher by 19.7% and 21.7%, respectively than on Ca+M treatment. Lower content of SOC in the Ca+M treated soil could have shaped lower soil respiration than on CaNPK+M treated soil. Omission of nitrogen fertilization could have resulted in lower crop residues input into non-fertilized soil, and mitigated soil respiration. The relationship between cumulative soil respiration and content of SOC and TN in Eet (26–45 cm) and Bt (>45 cm) was statistically significant (Table 5). The relationships between soil respiration and content of both soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in the Ap soil horizon (0–25 cm) were of statistical significance. This finding suggests that CO2-C is also produced in deeper soil layers. According to Leitner et al. [53], decomposition of organic compounds in upper soil layers contributes approximately a 30% to CO2-C emissions in soil. The authors also state that the soil profile CO2-C concentration is higher in the deeper soil layers than in topsoil. Luo et al. [54] reported that the main source of CO2-C production is topsoil layer, although it is produced in deeper soil layers.

5. Conclusions

Our results indicate that omission of mineral fertilization significantly decreases soil respiration. Under similar fertilization conditions, the distribution and amount of CO2 released from soil under cereal cultivation in monoculture and crop rotation are similar. Soil respiration under lupine cultivation is much higher than under cereals. This means that in the climatic conditions of Central and Eastern Europe, the soil respiration is more dependents on the crop species and fertilization than on the crop rotation system. Intensive soil respiration is related to yields and nitrogen uptake by plants, allowing plants to increase autotrophic respiration. However, CO2 is released as a result of autotrophic respiration derived from photosynthesis, but not from decomposition of soil organic matter. In the climate conditions of Central Europe, the negative correlation between soil respiration and soil moisture resulted from typical distribution of soil moisture—higher in the cooler part of the growing season and lower in summer, and may additionally be an effect of temporal water excess in the soil (after abnormally heavy rain) decreasing microbial and root respiration. In the climatic and soil conditions of Central Poland, the soil respiration dependents more on the temperature of the air and soil than on the soil content of NO3--N and NH4+-N.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation. T.S.; Methodology. T.S.; Investigation. T.S. and E.S.; Formal Analysis. T.S. and M.S.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation. T.S.; Writing—Review & Editing. M.S.; Visualization. M.S. and P.S. Supervision. T.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the financial resources for maintaining research equipment or research stand (SPUB) of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Decision: No. 89/E-385/SPUB/SP/2019).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks for staff of the Experimental Station in Skierniewice belonging to the Warsaw University of Life Sciences in which since 1923 the long-term experiments have been carried out as the basis for the conducted research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 11 00021 g001 550
Figure 1. Monthly precipitation and average air temperature in 2012 and 2013.
Figure 1. Monthly precipitation and average air temperature in 2012 and 2013.
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Figure 2. Daily CO2-C soil fluxes on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture (D) and 5-crop rotation (E) experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
Figure 2. Daily CO2-C soil fluxes on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture (D) and 5-crop rotation (E) experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
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Figure 3. Percent monthly contributions of cumulative CO2-C from soil subjected to Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture (D) and 5-crop rotation (E) experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
Figure 3. Percent monthly contributions of cumulative CO2-C from soil subjected to Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture (D) and 5-crop rotation (E) experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
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Table
Table 1. Average content (mean ± SD) of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and C/N ratio in soil horizons of Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation experiments.
Table 1. Average content (mean ± SD) of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and C/N ratio in soil horizons of Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation experiments.
TreatmentSoil HorizonSoil Organic CarbonTotal NitrogenC:N
g C kg−1g N kg−1
D—CaNPK+MAp (0–25 cm)8.802 c ± 0.1020.884 c ± 0.0059.96
E—CaNPK+M7.348 b ± 0.0860.712 b ± 0.00810.34
E—Ca+M6.141 a ± 0.1560.585 a ± 0.01710.51
D—CaNPK+MEet (26–45 cm)2.014 c ± 0.0160.201 c ± 0.00110.00
E—CaNPK+M2.668 b ± 0.1200.276 b ± 0.0109.68
E—Ca+M1.720 a ± 0.0490.183 a ± 0.0079.39
D—CaNPK+MBt (>45 cm)2.245 a ± 0.1210.290 a ± 0.0168.02
E—CaNPK+M2.668 b ± 0.0930.295 b± 0.0118.87
E—Ca+M2.212 a ± 0.0800.254 a ± 0.0138.72
D—rye monoculture, E—5-crop rotation. Values followed by the same letters in the column (separated for soil horizons) are not statistically different (Tukey HSD test, p < 0.05). SD—standard deviation.
Table
Table 2. Yields of plants (Experiment E, 2012—spring barley, 2013—yellow lupine, and Experiment D, 2012 and 2013—rye monoculture), total nitrogen content and nitrogen uptake by plants on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation Experiments in 2012 and 2013 (mean ± SD).
Table 2. Yields of plants (Experiment E, 2012—spring barley, 2013—yellow lupine, and Experiment D, 2012 and 2013—rye monoculture), total nitrogen content and nitrogen uptake by plants on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation Experiments in 2012 and 2013 (mean ± SD).
YearCropping SystemTreatmentGrainStrawTotal N Uptake
YieldN ContentN UptakeYieldN ContentN Uptake
t ha−1g N kg−1kg N ha−1t ha−1g N kg−1kg N ha−1kg N ha−1
2012Monoculture of rye (D)CaNPK+M2.28 c ±0.2312.7 c ±0.130.4 c ± 2.82.83 c ± 0.275.2 c ± 0.114.6 c ± 1.545.0 c ± 3.3
5-crop rotation (E)CaNPK+M2.78 a ± 0.2719.8 a ± 0.255.0 a ± 5.41.97 a ± 0.048.2 a ± 0.420.5 a ± 0.675.5 a ± 5.4
Ca+M2.29 b ± 0.1913.5 b ± 0.431.0 b ± 3.10.69 b ± 0.0510.4 b ± 0.15.7 b ± 0.736.7 b ± 3.1
2013Monoculture of rye (D)CaNPK+M2.37 c ± 0.2016.0 d ± 0.637.7 d ± 1.91.87 d ± 0.085.28 c ± 0.269.8 d ± 0.447.6 c ± 1.9
5-crop rotation (E)CaNPK+M1.56 a ± 0.1653.0 a ± 1.282.3 a ± 6.68.45 a ± 0.913.1 a ± 0.8110.0 a ± 8.9192.3 a ± 14.7
Ca+M1.17 a ± 0.4753.9 a ± 5.061.2 a ± 19.65.55 b ± 1.4213.2 a ± 3.267.0 b ± 6.3131.2 b ± 20.9
Values followed by the same letters in the column (separated for 2012 and 2013) are not statistically different (Tukey HSD multiple range test, p < 0.05). SD—standard deviation.
Table
Table 3. Daily and cumulative CO2-C emissions from soil on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
Table 3. Daily and cumulative CO2-C emissions from soil on Ca+M and CaNPK+M treatments under rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation experiments over the measurement period in 2012 and 2013.
Cropping SystemTreatment20122013
CO2-C Soil Emissions
Daily CumulativeDaily Cumulative
kg CO2-C ha−1
Rye monoculture (D)CaNPK+Mmean ± SD21.71 ± 16.24989.5 ± 229.322.88 ± 16.63982.7 ± 284.2
median17.39 b5043.116.43 a4028.0
min-max4.25–94.344688.8–5283.41.49–67.253605.1–4315.6
5-crop rotation
(E)		CaNPK+Mmean ± SD22.06 ± 21.04809.2 ± 164.337.43 ± 29.46997.5 ± 407.5
median15.43 b4743.332.49 b7137.9
min-max0.93–102.534670.1–5079.61.59–158.226306–7331.6
Ca+Mmean ± SD16.36 ± 15.93535.1 ± 235.325.63 ± 24.54552.7 ± 429.1
median10.45 a3557.116.11 a4617.7
min-max0.72–72.243223.8–3868.10.47–102.274092.4–5023.4
Values followed by the same letters in the column are not statistically different (Kruskal-Wallis test, p < 0.05). SD—standard deviation.
Table
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between CO2-C fluxes from soil and atmospheric (Ta) and soil (Ts) temperature, soil moisture (WFPS), NO3−-N and NH4+-N soil content in Ap (0–25 cm) soil horizon.
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between CO2-C fluxes from soil and atmospheric (Ta) and soil (Ts) temperature, soil moisture (WFPS), NO3−-N and NH4+-N soil content in Ap (0–25 cm) soil horizon.
Soil FluxesTaTsWFPSNO3−NH4+
CO20.52 *0.57 *−0.12 *0.48 *0.41 *
Spearman correlation coefficients, * p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Correlation coefficient between cumulative soil respiration and content of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) in Ap, Eet, and Bt soil horizons.
Table 5. Correlation coefficient between cumulative soil respiration and content of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) in Ap, Eet, and Bt soil horizons.
Soil HorizonsSOCTN
Ap (0–25 cm)0.120.14
Eet (26–45 cm)0.68 *0.69 *
Bt (>45 cm)0.58 *0.45 *
Spearman correlation coefficients, * p < 0.05.
Table
Table 6. Correlation coefficient between cumulative soil respiration and crop yields of grain and straw, content of total nitrogen in grain and straw, nitrogen uptake by crops.
Table 6. Correlation coefficient between cumulative soil respiration and crop yields of grain and straw, content of total nitrogen in grain and straw, nitrogen uptake by crops.
PlantGrainStrawTotal N Uptake
YieldN ContentYieldN Content
Rye 0.450.88 *0.83 *−0.310.98 *
Barley0.66 *0.94*0.96 *0.93 *0.92 *
Lupine0.41−0.070.71 *0.070.80 *
Spearman correlation coefficients, * p < 0.05.
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Sosulski, T.; Szymańska, M.; Szara, E.; Sulewski, P. Soil Respiration under 90 Year-Old Rye Monoculture and Crop Rotation in the Climate Conditions of Central Poland. Agronomy 2021, 11, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010021

AMA Style

Sosulski T, Szymańska M, Szara E, Sulewski P. Soil Respiration under 90 Year-Old Rye Monoculture and Crop Rotation in the Climate Conditions of Central Poland. Agronomy. 2021; 11(1):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010021

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sosulski, Tomasz, Magdalena Szymańska, Ewa Szara, and Piotr Sulewski. 2021. "Soil Respiration under 90 Year-Old Rye Monoculture and Crop Rotation in the Climate Conditions of Central Poland" Agronomy 11, no. 1: 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010021

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