3.2. Electromagnetic Absorption Parameters and Electrical Conductivity
Generally used electronic equipment like TV sets, laptops, mobile phones, etc., emit electromagnetic radiation within low-frequency ranges, usually between 1–4 GHz. Thus, the shielding of EMI within this frequency bandwidth is of high importance. As already mentioned, shielding by the reflection mechanism is often ineffective, as electromagnetic plane waves reflect from the surface of the shield but still propagates through the ambient environment. By contrast, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the most promising way to protect the utility of electronic equipment and human health. Therefore, the current work deals with the investigation of the absorption shielding efficiency of composites, which means the ability of materials to absorb electromagnetic radiation. The absorption shielding performance of composites was evaluated within the frequency bandwidth from 1 MHz to 6 GHz, which covers the operation frequency of commonly used electronic and electromagnetic instrumentation. The electromagnetic parameters complex permittivity and complex permeability were first determined. The complex permeability consists of two parts, real µ′ and imaginary µ″ permeability. The real part corresponds to magnetic storage capacity, while imaginary permeability represents magnetic dissipation or losses.
The frequency dependences of complex permeability for tested composites are graphically illustrated in
Figure 6,
Figure 7 and
Figure 8. In
Figure 6, it is shown that the real permeability of composites filled only with ferrites does not change with frequency up to roughly 500 MHz, then it significantly drops down (under 1). The highest µ′ seems to be associated with the composite filled with 200 phr of MnZn ferrite, although it can be stated that no significant changes in real permeability were recorded in dependence on the type of ferrite or ferrites in their mutual combinations. Very low influence of fillers’ composition was also recorded for imaginary permeability µ″, which was frequency-independent up to 100 MHz. Then, it reached the maximum (between 1–2 GHz), which corresponds to maximum magnetic dissipation (resonance frequency), and dropped down.
The frequency dependences of complex permeability for composites filled with ferrites and carbon fibers (
Figure 7) or ferrites and carbon black (
Figure 8) were very similar. The real part showed a slight decreasing trend with an increase in frequency to 300–500 MHz. Then, a sharp decrease occurred up to a maximum frequency. The imaginary permeability did not change very much with frequency to roughly 100–200 MHz. It reached the maximum dissipation at a resonance frequency (1–2 GHz). The real and imaginary parts of hybrid composites seemed to be slightly higher when compared to equivalent composites filled with ferrites, mainly at very low frequencies. With frequency increase, differences between permeabilities became negligible and no meaningful influence of the tested fillers on complex permeability was observed.
On the other side, as shown in
Figure 9, we recorded a clear influence of materials’ complex permittivity on the type of ferrite or ferrites in their mutual combinations. The highest value of the real part was manifested in the composite filled with manganese–zinc ferrite (Mn200), while the lowest one was found for the composite filled with nickel–zinc ferrite (Ni200). It can be stated that the higher the amount of nickel–zinc ferrite in magnetic filler combinations, the lower the ε′. The highest differences between the real permittivity were observed at the initial frequency (ε′ = 12 for the composite Mn200, ε′ = 5.2 for the composite Ni200 at 1 MHz). With an increase in frequency, the differences in the real part became smaller. From
Figure 9, it is also shown that upon the first strong decline of ε′ at low frequencies, the continual decreasing trend was recorded with the next frequency increase. The recorded values were ε′ = 3.6 and ε′ = 1.6 at 6 GHz for the composites Mn200 and Ni200, respectively. The imaginary permittivity was lower than the real part and was also found to be dependent on the type of ferrite or magnetic fillers in their combinations, mainly at low frequencies. With an increase in frequency, the ε″ declined to a very low value with almost no influence on the frequency or magnetic fillers.
The complex permittivity of hybrid composites was also strongly dependent on ferrite or ferrites in their combinations, meaning that the higher the amount of nickel–zinc ferrite, the lower the real and imaginary permittivity values (
Figure 10 and
Figure 11). The higher the frequency, the lower both ε′ and ε″ are. When comparing the complex permittivity of composites, it becomes apparent that the application of carbon-based fillers resulted in the enhancement of both the real and imaginary parts. The calculated value of ε′ was 24.5 for the composite with designation CF-Mn200 at 1 MHz (
Figure 10). Upon an increase in frequency up to the maximum, the real part declined to 6.5. The real part of the composite CF-Ni200 decreased from 9.8 at 1 MHz to 3.2 at 6 GHz. The highest complex permittivity was found for composites filled with a combination of ferrites and carbon black (
Figure 11). The real part of the composite CB-Mn200 reached almost 40 at 1 MHz, followed by a decrease to 10 at 6 GHz. The imaginary permittivity decreased from 18.7 down to 0.6 when the frequency increased from 1 MHz up to its maximum value. The composite CB-Ni200 exhibited real and imaginary parts of 16.2 and 7.2 at 1 MHz, respectively, which decreased down to ε′ = 4.1 and ε″ = 0.2 at a maximum frequency.
The absorption shielding efficiency of composites was investigated based on previously calculated parameters. Absorption shielding efficiency of composites was characterized through determination of return loss
RL. Return loss provides information about the amount of EMI, which is absorbed by the composite shield. Materials exhibiting return loss at −10 dB can absorb about 90–95% of incident radiation plane waves. Lower return loss relates to higher EMI absorption. Material shields exhibiting return loss at −20 dB have been reported to absorb almost 99% of harmful EMI and, thus, they are excellent radiation absorbers [
23,
24,
25]. The efficiency of absorption shielding depends on frequency bandwidths. This means the broader the frequency bandwidths for absorption shielding, the higher the absorption shielding ability of the materials.
The frequency dependences of return loss
RL for composites filled with ferrites or their mutual combinations are graphically illustrated in
Figure 12. The calculated values of their electromagnetic absorption characteristics are summarized in
Table 4. RL
min represents the minimum value of return loss at a matching frequency or maximum absorption shielding efficiency, f
m is the matching frequency, and Δf at −10 dB and −20 dB summarizes the effective frequency absorption bandwidth of composites at the given return loss
RL. It must be noted that composites with an equivalent ratio of both ferrites (Mn100Ni100) and composites with designations Mn50Ni150 and Ni200 reached absorption maxima over the tested frequency of 6 GHz. The electromagnetic absorption parameters summarized in
Table 4 represent only the results calculated to the maximum frequency—6 GHz. The composite filled only with nickel–zinc ferrite did not reach return loss even at −10 dB within the tested frequency range and, thus, there are no data of electromagnetic absorption parameters available for this composite. It can be inferred that the higher the ratio of NiZn ferrite in magnetic fillers combinations, the higher the frequency at which the composites provided absorption shielding efficiency. Within the tested frequency range, the evident absorption maxima were recorded only for the composite filled with 200 phr of manganese–zinc ferrite (Mn200) and for the composite Mn150Ni50. The absorption maximum of the sample Mn200 was −60 dB at a matching frequency 4670 MHz, while the composite Mn150Ni50 reached an absorption maximum of −51.4 dB at a matching frequency of 5700 MHz. The effective absorption frequency bandwidth of the composite filled with manganese–zinc ferrite ranged from 3050 MHz to 6 GHz at RL = −10 dB and from 4150 MHz to 5250 MHz at RL = −20 dB. The effective frequency bandwidth for the composite Mn150Ni50 moved from 3550 MHz at −10 dB and from 5020 MHz at −20 dB to 6 GHz.
From
Figure 13, it becomes apparent that the combination of magnetic fillers with carbon fibers resulted in the shifting of EMI absorption shielding efficiency to lower frequencies and all composites exhibited clear absorption peaks within the tested frequency range. As also shown in
Figure 13 and
Table 5, the absorption shielding performance was clearly dependent on the type of ferrite or ferrites in their combinations. The composite filled with carbon fibers and manganese–zinc ferrite (CF-Mn200) showed absorption shielding performance at the lowest frequency (matching frequency was 2769 MHz with minimum value of return loss −58.3 dB). This composite exhibited the narrowest effective frequency bandwidth at RL = −10 and −20 dB (from 1920 MHz to 4050 MHz at −10 dB and from 2500 MHz to 3100 MHz at −20 dB). Thus, it can be stated that this composite is the worst absorber of electromagnetic radiation. With increasing amounts of NiZn ferrite, the absorption shielding performance shifted to higher frequencies. The composite filled with CF and 200 phr nickel–zinc ferrite (CF-Ni200) absorbed electromagnetic radiation at the highest frequency (f
m = 4140 MHz, RL
min = −57 dB). The effective frequency bandwidth ranged from 2.4 GHz to 6 GHz at −10 dB (Δf = 3600 MHz) and from 3500 MHz to 4880 MHz at −20 dB (Δf = 1380 MHz). The broadest absorption bandwidths suggest that this composite is the most effective absorber of electromagnetic radiation. When looking at
Figure 13 and
Table 5, one can see that effective frequency bandwidths of composites became broader with increasing proportions of NiZn ferrite. Thus, it can be concluded that nickel–zinc ferrite exhibits better absorption shielding performance.
In
Figure 14 and
Table 6, it is shown that the frequency dependences of composites filled with ferrites and carbon black are also strongly influenced by the type of ferrite or ferrites in their combinations. Again, with an increasing content of NiZn ferrite, the absorption maxima shifted to higher frequencies and the effective frequency bandwidth at −10 and −20 dB became broader. The absorption maximum for the composite filled with CB and 200 phr of manganese–zinc ferrite (CB-Mn200) was −49 dB at 1780 MHz, while the composite with designation CB-Ni200 demonstrated an absorption maximum of −51 dB at 3250 MHz. The composite CB-Mn200 exhibited the narrowest absorption peak (RL ranged between 1340 MHz–2400 MHz at −10 dB and from 1630 MHz to 1930 MHz at −20 dB). On the other hand, the widest effective frequency bandwidths of the composite CB-Ni200 was between 2020 MHz–5120 MHz (Δf = 3100 MHz) and between 2840 MHz–3720 MHz (Δf = 880 MHz) at −10 and −20 dB, respectively, rank this composite as the best absorber of EMI.
When comparing electromagnetic absorption parameters of composites filled only with ferrites (considering only the composites with designations Mn200 and Mn150Ni50, which demonstrated absorption maxima within the tested frequency range) and hybrid CF–ferrite- or CB–ferrite-based composites, one can see that composites filled only with ferrites exhibited the highest matching frequencies fm and the broadest effective absorption frequency bandwidths Δf at −10 and −20 dB. Based upon that, it can be concluded that those composites are the best EMI absorber shields. Simultaneously, they can shield electromagnetic radiation at the highest frequencies. The incorporation of carbon-based fillers resulted in the shifting of absorption shielding performance of composites to lower frequencies on one hand. On the other hand, their absorption shielding performance was lower as evidence of lower effective frequency bandwidths. The poorest ability to absorb EMI was demonstrated by the composites filled with ferrites and carbon black, showing the narrowest absorption peaks. They also provided absorption shielding performance at the lowest frequencies. It can be stated that absorption maxima RLmin were not significantly influenced by the composition of composite materials.
The electrical conductivity of composite shields was evaluated to understand the influence of the fillers on absorption shielding performance. From
Figure 15, it is obvious that the lowest conductivity was found in composites filled only with ferrites. Carbon-based fillers demonstrate unique electrical properties and it becomes clearly apparent that their application into rubber compounds results in an increase in electrical conductivity. The highest electrical conductivity was found for composites filled ferrites and carbon black. The conductivity of hybrid composites was found to increase with an increasing content of manganese–zinc ferrite, which could point to s higher conductivity of MnZn filler. However, this was not experimentally confirmed for composites filled only with ferrites. As shown, their conductivity moved only in a very low range of experimental values with almost no dependence on the type of ferrite or ferrites in their combinations. It might be stated that some synergic effect between carbon-based fillers and ferrites was observed when considering the conductivity. The highest conductivity was manifested in the composite CB-Mn200. This composite simultaneously showed the highest real and imaginary permittivity values (
Figure 11). With increasing proportions of NiZn ferrite, the conductivity of both types of hybrid composites showed decreasing trends and similar decreases were observed for their permittivity. Also, the highest conductivity of composites filled with ferrites and CB was reflected in their highest real and imaginary permittivity values. On the other side, the lowest permittivity was demonstrated for the composites filled only with ferrites with the lowest conductivity. As their conductivity was not significantly influenced by the type of ferrite, we recorded the lowest difference between the real and imaginary permittivity values for composites Mn200 and Ni200. Thus, the dependence between the conductivity and permittivity was established, meaning that higher conductivity was reflected in the higher complex permittivity of composites. As outlined, real permittivity relates to the electrical charge storage capacity. It can be measured as the number of accumulated charges, microcapacitors, and polarization centers [
18,
26]. Polarization of the filler and rubber matrix and polarization at the interfacial region between the filler and the matrix can occur in dependence of radiation frequency [
27,
28]. The presence of carbon-based fillers resulted in higher accumulation of electric charges within the composite materials. Simultaneously, the application of carbon-based fillers caused a reduction in the distance between the filler particles, which are surrounded by the rubber matrix. Even a small content of carbon-based fillers significantly reduces space between particles due to the tubular structure of carbon fibers or structural aggregates of carbon black. This led to higher polarization of the rubber matrix as well as formation of localized charges at the filler–rubber interfacial region (interfacial rubber–filler polarization). Imaginary permittivity relates to the dissipation of electrical energy. The presence of carbon-based fillers contributed to the formation of conductive networks within the composite matrix, which is beneficial for dielectric dissipation and, thus, higher imaginary permittivity [
29,
30].
Although, at lower frequencies (below 1 GHz), slightly higher real and imaginary permeability values were exhibited in hybrid composites, overall, it be stated that the permeability of composites was found not to be significantly influenced by the type and content of the fillers. Real and imaginary permeability corresponds to magnetic storage and dissipation, respectively. As shown, the complex permeability is influenced only by the presence of magnetic fillers with magnetic dipoles with almost no influence of highly conductive carbon-based fillers. Materials having magnetic dipoles and, thus, high permeability have been reported to be good EMI absorber shields [
31,
32,
33]. However, all tested composites exhibited very similar permeability and higher permittivity, and conductivity of composites containing carbon-based fillers are believed to be crucial parameters, which diminished their absorption shielding performance. It has been revealed that highly conductive materials are good candidates for reflection of electromagnetic radiation, mainly at low frequencies [
34,
35,
36]. The results also demonstrated that the higher the conductivity, the lower the frequency for absorption shielding.