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Review

Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production

by
Longlu Wang
*,
Kun Wang
,
Junkang Sun
,
Chen Gu
,
Yixiang Luo
and
Shiyan Wang
College of Electronic and Optical Engineering & College of Flexible Electronics (Future Technology), Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, 9 Wenyuan Road, Nanjing 210023, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Catalysts 2025, 15(8), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15080711
Submission received: 24 August 2024 / Revised: 21 July 2025 / Accepted: 23 July 2025 / Published: 26 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Photocatalysis)
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Abstract

The controllable loading of a cocatalyst on a semiconductor is the key to further improving the efficiency and stability of visible-light photocatalytic hydrogen production. It is of great practical significance to load a cocatalyst onto a semiconductor spatially separated to realize space charge separation for efficient photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. The inherent anisotropic morphology of one-dimensional nanorods can provide two spatially separated locations at the tip and side surfaces of the nanorods. In this review, we systematically summarize non-centrosymmetric and centrosymmetric cocatalyst-tipped one-dimensional (1D) photocatalysts, including their preparation method, catalytic hydrogen production performance, and catalytic mechanism. This review will bring new vitality to the design, preparation, and application of cocatalyst-tipped one-dimensional nanorods.

1. Introduction

The urgent need to transition from fossil fuels to sustainable energy sources, driven by climate change and energy security concerns, makes the production of clean hydrogen fuel highly relevant. Currently, ~95% of global hydrogen is produced via steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification, which rely on fossil fuels and emit CO2. Converting solar energy into chemical energy through artificial photosynthesis and storing it in the form of hydrogen is an effective way of solar energy conversion and utilization [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Therefore, the rational development and design of advanced photocatalytic materials are of critical importance for enhancing hydrogen evolution performance. Due to limited light utilization and fast carrier recombination, current photocatalytic semiconductors typically have low catalytic properties [7,8,9,10,11]. The preparation of catalysts with fine nanostructures is an effective way to improve photocatalytic activity [12,13,14,15,16,17]. The controllable load of the cocatalyst on the semiconductor is the key to further improving the efficiency and stability of visible-light catalytic decomposition of water for hydrogen production.
The low charge separation efficiency and the photo-corrosion caused by the accumulation of photogenerated holes on the surface limit the further application of semiconductor photocatalytic materials [18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. It is of great practical significance to develop new cocatalysts to realize space charge separation for efficient photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Reductive and oxidative cocatalysts separated in the semiconductor’s surface modification space can achieve effective carrier separation, and thus improve the photocatalytic water decomposition to H2 activity, but the preparation of such composites is very challenging at present [25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. The inherent anisotropic morphology of one-dimensional nanorods can provide two spatially separated locations at the tip and side surfaces of the nanorods [32,33,34,35]. It promotes the separation of the reductive hydrogen production reaction and oxidative half-reaction in physical space, effectively inhibits the recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes, and then improves the performance of photocatalytic hydrogen production.
The structure based on semiconductor nanorods with a cocatalyst at one end allows for a reasonable integration of light absorbers, hole acceptors, and electron collectors, as well as a spatially separated structure of these functional components, which facilitates rapid charge migration to achieve a long charge lifetime. In this review, we summarize the research progress of reductive and oxidative double cocatalysts on 1D nanorod surface modification for space separation for photocatalytic hydrogen production.

2. Non-Centrosymmetric 1D Metal–Semiconductor Nanostructures

The spatially oriented carrier separation is one of the most important factors for the efficient utilization of photogenerated carriers [36,37,38,39,40]. The spatial distribution of photogenerated electrons and holes in photocatalysts can be realized by designing morphology and composition [41,42,43,44,45,46]. Constructing non-centrosymmetric one-dimensional (1D) metal–semiconductor nanostructures is an effective strategy to optimize the charge separation efficiency of photocatalysts.
Piao et al. constructed a non-centrosymmetric Au/TiO2 nano-mushroom (Au/TiO2 NMs) structure as shown in Figure 1a. Loading Ag NPs on the surface of Au/TiO2 NMs under visible light irradiation was carried out to verify the direction of motion of photogenerated electrons. Silver particles deposited on TiO2 can be obviously observed in the TEM (Figure 1b), which indicates that the photogenerated electrons are transferred radially from the Au nanorods to the top TiO2. This well-designed structure of Au/TiO2 NMs shows the outstanding photocatalytic efficiency compared with other various catalysts under sunlight, visible light, and UV light irradiation, as shown in Figure 1c,d. The improvement of the photocatalytic efficiency of Au/TiO2 NMs catalyst is mainly due to the direct charge separation and the formation of a spatially separated region of oxidation reaction and reduction reaction. Au/TiO2 NMs, as one of the non-centrosymmetric catalysts, have great potential in photocatalytic hydrogen production reactions [47]. This study establishes that precisely controlling metal-semiconductor topology—rather than merely combining materials—creates deterministic charge pathways for optimized photocatalysis. The nano-mushroom architecture provides an instructive paradigm for designing spatially separated active sites in next-generation energy conversion systems.
Janus heterostructures have demonstrated immense potential in the field of light-driven redox catalysis. By rationally assembling different functional components, Janus heterostructures can significantly enhance catalytic performance. Recently, Xu et al. reported a facile method to construct a Janus Au-CdS-RuN5 heterojunction featuring a metal-semiconductor interface and an organic–inorganic hybrid interface, which was employed for H2 production and the value-added oxidative conversion of selective alcohols (Figure 2a). The metal–metal chalcogenide heterostructures (MMCHs) with a Janus configuration can provide channels for directional charge transfer and facilitate the design of spatially separated oxidation/reduction active sites, thereby constructing a multifunctional coupled photocatalytic reaction system that not only enhances the efficiency of H2 generation through reduction reactions but also obtains high-value organic chemicals through selective oxidation reactions. Figure 2b illustrates the H2 production yields of different samples. Pure CdS NRs exhibit extremely low hydrogen production activity. When Au NPs are selectively deposited on the tips of CdS NRs, a marked improvement in H2 generation efficiency on Au-CdS can be observed. After integrating the oxidation cocatalyst RuN5 with Au-CdS, the photocatalytic activity is further enhanced. Additionally, it is noted that the apparent quantum yield (AQY) values follow a synchronous trend with the absorption spectrum of Au-CdS-RuN5 (Figure 2c), with a maximum of 40.2% at 400 nm. The energy level structure arrangement of the components within the heterojunction is depicted in Figure 1d, indicating that photoexcited electrons transfer from CdS to Au, while photoexcited holes migrate from CdS to RuN5. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) calculations visually demonstrate the direction of charge transfer at the heterointerface. Due to the adsorption of *PhCH2OH on RuN5, the formation of *PhCH2O ensues, and the dehydrogenation of BA preferentially occurs at the O-H bond of benzyl alcohol before the C-H bond. The free energy changes for the activation reactions of protons and benzyl alcohol at the Au and RuN5 sites in the heterostructure, respectively, are optimized (Figure 2e,f). The inherent anisotropic morphology of this one-dimensional Janus nanorod offers two spatially separated locations at the tip and lateral surface of the nanorod. Under illumination, it can efficiently separate photogenerated electrons and holes, enabling reduction and oxidation reactions to occur at the Au and RuN5 sites, respectively, thereby achieving hydrogen production and value-added conversion of alcohol compounds. By modifying RuN5, the reaction pathway is adjusted to avoid the formation of explosive hydrogen–oxygen mixtures and reactive oxygen species (ROS), while simultaneously obtaining high-value selective oxidation products.
Colloidal nanorods based on CdS or CdSe exhibit catalytic activity for light-driven hydrogen evolution has been confirmed. Seeded CdSe@CdS nanorods also show improved performance as their length increases. However, the impact of nanorod length on the efficiency or pathway of electron localization at the tip remains an unresolved issue. Micheel et al. obtained nanorods of different lengths by adjusting the amounts of CdSe seeds and ligands used in the synthesis. This method effectively fixed the diameter of the rods. They achieved precise deposition of the Ni nanoparticle tips using oleylamine and trioctyl phosphine to reduce nickel (II) acetylacetonate as the nickel precursor. By adjusting the concentration of the nickel precursor, reaction temperature, and time, as well as the ligands used, they attained precise control over the size, location, and number of Ni nanoparticle sites on the CdS rod surface. Moreover, to achieve optimal hydrogen production activity, they selected the Ni tip size to be 5.0 ± 0.5 nm. Figure 3a–e present transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the nanorods, which have comparable diameters and Ni tip sizes, but varying lengths. Their research findings indicate that, as depicted in Figure 3f, the ratio of CdS to CdSe absorption increases with rod length, owing to the expanded CdS volume. Additionally, the Ni-tipped samples exhibit broad absorption across the visible spectrum, a consequence of light scattering and absorption by the Ni nanoparticles. As the wavelength increases to 500 nm, the absorbance of samples with different lengths gradually converges to a similar value and is ultimately normalized to the tip absorption at 625 nm.

3. Non-Centrosymmetric 1D Semiconductor-Semiconductor Nanostructures

In the previous discussion, non-centrosymmetric 1D metal–semiconductor nanostructures are explored in optimizing photocatalytic efficiency [50,51]. Developing non-centrosymmetric one-dimensional (1D) semiconductor-semiconductor nanostructures is also an effective strategy to optimize the charge separation efficiency of photocatalysts [52,53,54,55,56,57,58].
Zhang et al. achieved highly efficient photocatalytic H2 production utilizing MoS2-tipped CdS nanorods (M-t-CdS Nrs) via amine-assisted oriented attachment [59]. Figure 4a illustrates the process of amine-assisted oriented attachment for synthesizing M-t-CdS Nr heterostructures. Initially, amine-functionalized CdS nanorods (Nrs) were synthesized using ethanediamine (EDA) as a chelating agent through a hydrothermal reaction. In the subsequent step, the crude amine-functionalized CdS nanorods were employed directly as seed substrates to introduce a secondary MoS2 component into a diethylenetriamine (DETA)/water binary solvent. Simultaneously, the MoS2 precursor, MoO22−, was coordinated with DETA. Due to the alternating lattice planes (S–Cd–S–Cd) of (001)-oriented CdS nanorods, which create Cd-terminated and S-terminated facets at both ends due to their chemical asymmetry, Mo4+ has a higher affinity with S2−. This affinity facilitates earlier nucleation and growth of MoS2 on the S-terminated facet compared to the Cd-terminated facet, resulting in MoS2 tipping at one end of the CdS nanorods. Low-magnification TEM images of a typical 10 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorod clearly revealed stacked umbrella-shaped MoS2 sheets precisely located at the end of the CdS nanorods (Figure 4b). Figure 4c,d depict epitaxial MoS2 evident in the high-resolution TEM (HR-TEM) and high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) scanning TEM images. The photocatalytic hydrogen production activities of M-t-CdS nanorod samples were optimized by varying the MoS2 content using LA as a sacrificial agent (Figure 4e). The optimized M-t-CdS nanorods with 3.5 wt.% MoS2 exhibited the highest hydrogen production efficiency in the figure, contrasting with the previous CdS/MoS2 composite. They compared the photocatalytic hydrogen production activity of this photocatalyst with that of 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods, pure CdS nanorods, and Pt/CdS nanorods, as shown in Figure 4f. Notably, M-t-CdS nanorods exhibited a significantly higher efficiency in hydrogen production: approximately 92 times that of pure CdS nanorods, roughly 5.2 times that of optimized 1% Pt/CdS nanorods, and about 4.8 times that of 3.5% MoS2/CdS, as illustrated in the figure. Figure 4g shows the time course of H2 evolution on 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods. They discovered that the 3.5% M-t-CdS nanorods sustained a consistent hydrogen production rate over a span of 23 h, fluctuating by merely ±0.6 mmol h−1 g−1, highlighting their remarkable long-term operational stability. To delve deeper into the photocatalytic hydrogen production efficiency of M-t-CdS nanorods. They conducted a comparative analysis of the photocatalytic hydrogen production capacity and enhancement factors of M-t-CdS nanorods relative to pure CdS, juxtaposed with various nanostructured MoS2/CdS photocatalysts reported in the recent literature. As shown in Figure 4h, the effectiveness of the tip structure of M-t-CdS nanorods has been validated by its outstanding enhancement factors relative to other configurations of MoS2/CdS. Figure 4i Zhang et al. have also explored the dependence of the photocatalytic H2 activity of MoS2/CdS on the number of layers. The vast amount of waste generated by humans each year poses a significant threat to natural ecosystems, and existing recycling methods cannot recycle discarded plastics in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner. Du et al. employed a MoS2-tipped CdS (MoS2/CdS) nanorod photocatalyst with a strategic spatial arrangement of its functional components. In this setup, the MoS2 domain is positioned at one end of the CdS nanorod to capture photoinduced electrons, while the sidewall of the CdS nanorod is responsible for accumulating holes. Through the continuous process of photo-reforming polylactic acid, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene, not only are valuable chemicals produced, but H2 is also generated. This provides a new approach for environmentally friendly plastic recycling.
Photocatalytic water splitting, which is a method of converting water into hydrogen and oxygen by utilizing light energy, plays a crucial role in alleviating global warming and resolving the energy crisis. Cadmium sulfide (CdS), a typical photocatalyst, has a suitable bandgap of 2.42 eV. However, the photocatalytic activity of single-component CdS is relatively low due to the rapid recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes. As a result, enhancing the separation efficiency of photogenerated electron-hole pairs in CdS has become a key research focus. Recently, Wang et al. proposed and designed an oriented facet heterojunction (OFH) consisting of ZnIn2S4 nanosheets (ZIS NSs) and CdS nanowires (NWs) to enhance the spatial charge separation efficiency. Figure 5a,b present typical transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the prepared OFH-CZt, where ZIS NSs are parallelly grown at the tips of CdS NWs. Figure 5c shows an enlarged area near the tip of Figure 1b, revealing measured lattice fringes of 0.32 nm. Figure 5d clearly indicates the variation in lattice spacing between CdS and ZIS near the grain boundary, suggesting the existence of micro-lattice distortion due to the formation of Cd-S-In bonds. The slight lattice mismatch provides a strong driving force for heterogeneous nucleation because of the low interfacial energy. The optical absorption properties of the mushroom-shaped OFH-CZt composites were assessed using UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). Compared with pure CdS, the mushroom-like OFH-CZt effectively utilizes visible light as a novel photocatalyst (Figure 5e). Furthermore, the photoluminescence (PL) peak of OFH-CZt is the lowest among the three samples, indicating that the recombination probability of photogenerated electron-hole pairs in OFH-CZt is effectively suppressed (Figure 5f). Polarization curves of pure CdS NWs, ZIS NSs, and OFH-CZt were characterized. Notably, OFH-CZt exhibits a significantly enhanced current density compared to bare CdS NWs, demonstrating that the oriented facet heterojunction greatly facilitates charge carrier transfer and separation (Figure 5g). Additionally, the OFH-CZt catalyst shows outstanding photocatalytic activity under simulated sunlight, achieving a hydrogen production rate of 3072 μmol h−1g−1 with strong long-term stability (Figure 5h,i). Figure 5j depicts the energy level diagram for the mushroom-like OFH-CZt composites that promote photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Notably, the conduction band of ZIS is more negative than that of CdS. Consequently, in the OFH-CZt heterostructure, photoinduced electrons from the conduction band of ZIS are rapidly injected into the conduction band of CdS, where they react with adsorbed H+ to form H2. Therefore, OFH effectively promotes the separation efficiency of photogenerated electron-hole pairs in the composite.
Collectively, these works reveal two strategic pathways for spatial optimization: (1) Terminal functionalization (MoS2/CdS): Pinpoints reduction sites while passivating corrosion-prone surfaces. (2) Strained heteroepitaxy (ZnIn2S4/CdS): Tailors band alignment through controlled lattice distortion. Both approaches transcend conventional heterojunctions by precisely coordinating charge flow with nanoscale topology, achieving unprecedented activity-stability synergies. Their success underscores interfacial atomic engineering as the next frontier in solar fuel architectures.

4. Symmetric One-Dimensional Semiconductor–Semiconductor Nanostructures

While non-centrosymmetric one-dimensional semiconductor–semiconductor nanostructures exhibit remarkable properties, research has also been dedicated to exploring the characteristics of symmetric one-dimensional nanostructures [61,62,63,64].
Zhang et al. first proposed this method, which involves a two-step solvothermal reaction in a binary solvent to produce symmetric MoS2-tipped photo-responsive semiconductor nanowires, exhibiting excellent photocatalytic activity [65]. Under illumination, the S-MtC NWs exhibited spatial separation of electron-hole pairs, with electrons transferring to MoS2 and holes remaining on the CdS stem. To further confirm the electron-hole separation characteristics, they carried the research where Pt and MnO2 were deposited via photo-deposition. Pt was reduced by electrons, and MnO2 was oxidized by holes on the material’s surface. As shown in Figure 6a,b, Pt and MnO2 were located on the MoS2 ends and CdS stem, respectively. This confirms the spatial separation of electron-hole pairs, as illustrated in Figure 6c, where electrons transfer to the MoS2 tips and holes remain on the CdS stem, facilitating separate redox reactions for H2 generation and the oxidation of Mn2+ to MnOx flakes, which were deposited only on the CdS NW stem. To further confirm the heterojunction, an atomic structure model was constructed as shown in Figure 6d. A good interface was formed between CdS and MoS2. As shown in Figure 6e, there is a 0.58 eV barrier at the formed chemical interface, facilitating electron transfer from CdS to MoS2. Further studies on the differences between the generated chemical interface and the simple physical contact interface revealed, as shown in Figure 6f, that the calculated density of states (DOS) demonstrated that the Fermi level at the chemical interface is lower than that at the physical contact, favoring electron-hole separation. Such a heterojunction structure significantly enhances H2 production efficiency. This paradigm shift demonstrates that precisely engineered electronic interfaces—not just morphological asymmetry—determine carrier management efficiency. The work expands the materials design toolkit for advanced photocatalysts, particularly for systems where directional growth is challenging.

5. Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods

With so many types available, comparing their performances to determine which is superior becomes crucial, and selecting the appropriate nanostructure among various samples is a key challenge [66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73].
Chen et al. first employed a heat-up approach to produce ZnSe nanorods. Then, they utilized AuCl3 as the gold precursor and dodecylamine as both the surfactant and reductant in a toluene solution at room temperature, resulting in the growth of Au tips on ZnSe NRs. The optical properties of Au on ZnSe NRs reveal that the modification of the electronic structure of Au–ZnSe hybrid NRs, instead of a simple mixture of ZnSe semiconductor and metal tips. To further study the growth of Au on ZnSe NRs, they used TEM images to continue their research. The molar ratio of the Au precursor to ZnSe NRs plays an important role. A low molar ratio (127:1) leads to almost no Au growth on ZnSe NRs for the growth of 1 h. When the ratio was increased to 254:1, small gold tips grew onto one of the two apices of the ZnSe NRs (Figure 7a), in which they concluded that under low molar ratio conditions, single Au tip growth predominates. As the ratio continued to increase to 762:1, as shown in Figure 7b, more Au tips grew, often at both ends of the ZnSe NRs. When the ratio was increased to 1270:1, as shown in Figure 7c, Au growth could even be observed on the body of the ZnSe NRs. In addition, with the increase in the ratio, the diameter of the Au also increased. After excluding interfering factors, Chen et al. obtained the line graph as shown in Figure 7d. The rate of pure ZnSe NRs is the lowest among the categories due to the high recombination rate. In comparison, pure Au NPs present a rate of 149.9 µmol h−1 g−1. The low efficiency of the mixture of Au NPs and ZnSe NRs as ZnSe NRs can inhibit the light absorption of Au NPs. Interestingly, single Au-tipped ZnSe hybrid NRs are more efficient (≈437.8 µmol h−1 g−1) in hydrogen generation than double Au-tipped ZnSe hybrid NRs (≈325.1 µmol h−1 g−1). Based on their analysis, they concluded that for single Au-tipped ZnSe hybrid NRs, the direct contact of the other end of the ZnSe NRs with the solution provides an advantage for hole transfer and consumption by a scavenger after electron transfer to the Au tip. While the double Au-tipped ones lack this characteristic, resulting in differences in H2 production efficiency. Based on the research results, they describe the photocatalytic mechanism by constructing a model as shown in Figure 7e,f. Since the fermi level of Au is lower than the bottom of the conduction band of ZnSe, electrons at the bottom of the conduction band of ZnSe will freely transfer to the Au domain once exposed to illumination. In addition, the induced holes are left in the valence band, thus spatially separating the electrons and holes, reducing the probability of recombination. As a result, the Au tips are rich in electrons, hence enhancing the capacity to capture H, contributing to proton reduction and H2 generation. Meanwhile, they use hole scavengers, i.e., methanol (Figure 7f), to remove holes. This work establishes a new paradigm: strategic under-coordination—whether through selective tip placement or engineered surface disorder—outperforms conventional symmetric or atomically smooth cocatalysts. The optimal architecture balances electron injection (tip functionality) with hole export (exposed semiconductor surfaces), resolving the carrier congestion that plagues conventional composites.
The influence of morphology and surface nature of Pt cocatalysts on the activity of Pt-tipped CdSe nanorods for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution was investigated by Hyunjoon Song et al. Round, cubic, and rough tips of three Pt-CdSe nanorods were synthesized, and their corresponding TEM and HRTEM images are shown in Figure 8a–c. All the samples were employed as visible light photocatalysts to evaluate the performance. The rough tips show the best activity, followed by the round and cubic tips [75]. This work indicated that the rational design of metal cocatalyst morphology could facilitate carrier dynamics and water reduction rates, thus significantly promoting photocatalytic activity.

6. Conclusions

The controllable load of the cocatalyst spatially separated on the 1D semiconductor, based on the inherent anisotropic morphology of 1D nanorods, is the key to realizing space charge separation. In this review, we systematically summarize non-centrosymmetric and centrosymmetric cocatalyst-tipped 1D semiconductive photocatalysts, including their preparation method, catalytic hydrogen production performance, and catalytic mechanism. The inherent anisotropic morphology of one-dimensional nanorods provides two spatially separated locations at the tip and side surfaces of the nanorods. The strategic integration of reductive/oxidative cocatalysts on 1D nanorods has elevated photocatalytic H2 evolution to unprecedented efficiencies. Yet achieving commercially viable solar hydrogen requires confronting persistent bottlenecks through interdisciplinary innovation. In situ liquid-phase TEM with ultrafast X-ray absorption spectroscopy would be combined to track carrier trajectories across tip/side sites in real time, informing machine learning-guided cocatalyst placement algorithms. It might be an effective approach to replace kinetically sluggish OER with organic oxidation (e.g., glycerol and plastics) using spatially segregated sites. Simultaneous H2 production and waste upcycling could boost system economics. This review will bring new vitality to the design, preparation, and application of cocatalyst-tipped one-dimensional nanorods to improve the efficiency and stability of visible-light photocatalytic hydrogen production.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (22202065), and Postgraduate Research &Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (No. SJCX24_306).

Conflicts of Interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

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Figure 1. (a) TEM images of Au/TiO2 NMs. (b) After loading Ag NPs on the surface of Au/TiO2 NMs under visible light irradiation. The H2-evolution rate of various catalysts from water under (c) sunlight, (d) visible light, and (e) UV light irradiation. Reproduced with permission from ref. [47]. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 1. (a) TEM images of Au/TiO2 NMs. (b) After loading Ag NPs on the surface of Au/TiO2 NMs under visible light irradiation. The H2-evolution rate of various catalysts from water under (c) sunlight, (d) visible light, and (e) UV light irradiation. Reproduced with permission from ref. [47]. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
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Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of the Au-CdS-RuN5 heterojunction. (b) Hydrogen production on Au-CdS-RuN5 under visible light irradiation for different samples. (c) Apparent quantum yield (AQY) curve and absorption spectrum of the Au-CdS-RuN5 sample. (d) Band alignment and schematic diagram of potential electron transfer in the Au-CdS-RuN5 heterostructure. Free energy profile for (e) benzoic acid (BA) oxidation and (f) hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on the bulk CdS site, Au site, and RuN5 site within the Au-CdS-RuN5 system. Reproduced with permission from ref. [48]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of the Au-CdS-RuN5 heterojunction. (b) Hydrogen production on Au-CdS-RuN5 under visible light irradiation for different samples. (c) Apparent quantum yield (AQY) curve and absorption spectrum of the Au-CdS-RuN5 sample. (d) Band alignment and schematic diagram of potential electron transfer in the Au-CdS-RuN5 heterostructure. Free energy profile for (e) benzoic acid (BA) oxidation and (f) hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on the bulk CdS site, Au site, and RuN5 site within the Au-CdS-RuN5 system. Reproduced with permission from ref. [48]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
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Figure 3. Characterization of Ni-tipped CdSe@CdS nanorods. (a–e) TEM micrographs of the structures under investigation. (f) Absorption spectra of the tipped nanorods. Reproduced with permission from ref. [49]. Copyright 2023, AIP Publishing.
Figure 3. Characterization of Ni-tipped CdSe@CdS nanorods. (a–e) TEM micrographs of the structures under investigation. (f) Absorption spectra of the tipped nanorods. Reproduced with permission from ref. [49]. Copyright 2023, AIP Publishing.
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Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of M-t-CdS nanorods. (b) TEM image, (c) HAADF scanning TEM image, and (d) high-resolution TEM (HR-TEM) image of 10 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods. (e) Photocatalytic H2 production performance of M-t-CdS nanorods with varying MoS2 content. (f) Comparison of photocatalytic H2 production efficiency of various samples. (g) Time-dependent H2 evolution on 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods. (h) Photocatalytic H2 production and enhancement factors of 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods compared to pure CdS, as well as previous studies on MoS2/CdS. (i) Diagram illustrating the photocatalytic H2 production on M-t-CdS nanorods and the electron transfer occurring at the MoS2 tips. Reproduced with permission from ref. [59]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of M-t-CdS nanorods. (b) TEM image, (c) HAADF scanning TEM image, and (d) high-resolution TEM (HR-TEM) image of 10 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods. (e) Photocatalytic H2 production performance of M-t-CdS nanorods with varying MoS2 content. (f) Comparison of photocatalytic H2 production efficiency of various samples. (g) Time-dependent H2 evolution on 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods. (h) Photocatalytic H2 production and enhancement factors of 3.5 wt.% M-t-CdS nanorods compared to pure CdS, as well as previous studies on MoS2/CdS. (i) Diagram illustrating the photocatalytic H2 production on M-t-CdS nanorods and the electron transfer occurring at the MoS2 tips. Reproduced with permission from ref. [59]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
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Figure 5. (a) TEM image of OFH-CZt. (b) A typical transmission electron microscope image of OFH-CZt at a higher magnification. (c) HRTEM image of OFH-CZt in the tip region. (d) Generation mechanism of intrinsic strain at the one-dimensional/two-dimensional interface. (e) UV-vis DRS spectra, (f) Photoluminescence spectra, (g) Polarization curves of CdS, ZIS, and OFH-CZt. (h) Average hydrogen evolution rates of CdS, ZIS, CZl, and OFH-CZt. (i) Cyclic operation of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution of OFH-CZt. (j) Schematic diagram of the reaction mechanism of HER on OFH-CZt composites under sunlight illumination. Reproduced with permission from ref. [60]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
Figure 5. (a) TEM image of OFH-CZt. (b) A typical transmission electron microscope image of OFH-CZt at a higher magnification. (c) HRTEM image of OFH-CZt in the tip region. (d) Generation mechanism of intrinsic strain at the one-dimensional/two-dimensional interface. (e) UV-vis DRS spectra, (f) Photoluminescence spectra, (g) Polarization curves of CdS, ZIS, and OFH-CZt. (h) Average hydrogen evolution rates of CdS, ZIS, CZl, and OFH-CZt. (i) Cyclic operation of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution of OFH-CZt. (j) Schematic diagram of the reaction mechanism of HER on OFH-CZt composites under sunlight illumination. Reproduced with permission from ref. [60]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
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Figure 6. Morphological analysis, schematic depiction, and theoretical modeling: (a) HAADF-STEM image and elemental mapping of 17.4 wt.% MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires post-Pt deposition via photoreduction. (b) HAADF-STEM image and elemental mapping of 17.4 wt.% MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires post-MnOx deposition via photooxidation. (c) Schematic representation of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires for H2 generation. (d) Schematic illustration of the chemical interface bonding of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires. (e) Band diagrams illustrating the interface of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires. (f) Calculated total density of states (DOS) at the interface of physical mixture and MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires, highlighting changes in Fermi level indicated by the green region. Reproduced with permission from ref. [65]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.
Figure 6. Morphological analysis, schematic depiction, and theoretical modeling: (a) HAADF-STEM image and elemental mapping of 17.4 wt.% MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires post-Pt deposition via photoreduction. (b) HAADF-STEM image and elemental mapping of 17.4 wt.% MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires post-MnOx deposition via photooxidation. (c) Schematic representation of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires for H2 generation. (d) Schematic illustration of the chemical interface bonding of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires. (e) Band diagrams illustrating the interface of MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires. (f) Calculated total density of states (DOS) at the interface of physical mixture and MoS2-tipped CdS nanowires, highlighting changes in Fermi level indicated by the green region. Reproduced with permission from ref. [65]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.
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Figure 7. (a–c) TEM images of Au–ZnSe hybrid NRs with Au tips of variable size. (a) 1.3 ± 0.2 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 254:1) (b) 1.6 ± 0.3 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 762:1). (c) 2.2 ± 0.3 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 1270:1) (d) Comparison of hydrogen generation rates among pure ZnSe NRs, Au NPs, ZnSe NRs + Au NPs, single Au-tipped NRs, and double Au-tipped NRs using methanol as the sacrificial hole scavenger. (e) Energy band alignment diagram of Au–ZnSe hybrid NRs. (f) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of Au-ZnSe hybrid NRs for hydrogen production in water splitting. Reproduced with permission from ref. [74]. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 7. (a–c) TEM images of Au–ZnSe hybrid NRs with Au tips of variable size. (a) 1.3 ± 0.2 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 254:1) (b) 1.6 ± 0.3 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 762:1). (c) 2.2 ± 0.3 nm (Au:ZnSe NRs = 1270:1) (d) Comparison of hydrogen generation rates among pure ZnSe NRs, Au NPs, ZnSe NRs + Au NPs, single Au-tipped NRs, and double Au-tipped NRs using methanol as the sacrificial hole scavenger. (e) Energy band alignment diagram of Au–ZnSe hybrid NRs. (f) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of Au-ZnSe hybrid NRs for hydrogen production in water splitting. Reproduced with permission from ref. [74]. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH GmbH.
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Figure 8. TEM and HRTEM images of (a) Round, (b) Cubic, and (c) Rough. The bars represent (TEM images) 20 nm and (inset and HRTEM images) 5 nm. Reproduced with permission from ref. [75]. Copyright 2023, The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 8. TEM and HRTEM images of (a) Round, (b) Cubic, and (c) Rough. The bars represent (TEM images) 20 nm and (inset and HRTEM images) 5 nm. Reproduced with permission from ref. [75]. Copyright 2023, The Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Wang, L.; Wang, K.; Sun, J.; Gu, C.; Luo, Y.; Wang, S. Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. Catalysts 2025, 15, 711. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15080711

AMA Style

Wang L, Wang K, Sun J, Gu C, Luo Y, Wang S. Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. Catalysts. 2025; 15(8):711. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15080711

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Longlu, Kun Wang, Junkang Sun, Chen Gu, Yixiang Luo, and Shiyan Wang. 2025. "Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production" Catalysts 15, no. 8: 711. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15080711

APA Style

Wang, L., Wang, K., Sun, J., Gu, C., Luo, Y., & Wang, S. (2025). Cocatalyst-Tipped One-Dimensional Nanorods for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. Catalysts, 15(8), 711. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15080711

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