Teachers’ Experiences with Flipped Classrooms in Senior Secondary Mathematics Instruction

Abstract

The quest for effective pedagogical practices in mathematics education has increasingly highlighted the flipped classroom model. This model has been shown to be particularly successful in higher education settings within developed countries, where resources and technological infrastructure are readily available. However, its implementation in secondary education, especially in developing nations, has been a critical area of investigation. Building on our earlier research, which found that students rated the flipped classroom model positively, this mixed-method study explores teachers’ experiences with implementing the model for mathematics instruction at the senior secondary level. Since teachers play a pivotal role as facilitators of this pedagogical approach, their understanding and perceptions of it can significantly impact its effectiveness. To gather insights into teachers’ experiences, this study employs both close-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. A quantitative analysis of participants’ responses to the questionnaires, including mean scores, standard deviations and Kruskal–Wallis H tests, reveals that teachers generally record positive experiences teaching senior secondary mathematics through flipped classrooms, although there are notable differences in their experiences. A thematic analysis of qualitative interview responses highlights the specific support systems essential for teachers’ successful adoption of the flipped classroom model in senior secondary mathematics instruction.

1. Research Overview

1.1. Introduction

The rise of technology has transformed education, altering how knowledge is imparted and acquired. Integrating technology into mathematics education has significantly enhanced student engagement and understanding [1,2]. Mathematics underpins many disciplines, cultivating critical thinking and problem-solving skills essential for navigating today’s complex world [3,4]. The flipped classroom (FC) model demonstrates this shift by reversing traditional instruction: students learn new material independently via videos and readings outside class, completing online tasks set by teachers. More of classroom time is then devoted to applying concepts through problem solving and peer collaboration, with teachers facilitating active learning [1,5,6]. This approach not only increases academic performance but also fosters positive attitudes toward mathematics [7,8].

The FC model supports diverse learning needs by allowing students to progress at their own pace—a crucial advantage in mathematics, where concepts build sequentially [8,9]. However, effective implementation requires careful planning and support for students less adept at self-directed learning [2,10]. Initially popularized in the early 2000s by teachers such as Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams, the FC model has expanded from high school chemistry to widespread use across subjects and countries [5,8,11]. By providing flexible access to instructional content, often through video, the model encourages active engagement and enables teachers to offer targeted support [7,9].

Internationally, the FC model has improved student engagement and achievement, as seen in countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia [12,13]. While higher education has widely adopted the model, its impact at the secondary level, especially in developing nations, warrants further study [14,15,16]. In Africa, countries such as South Africa and Ghana have made progress with the model, though challenges like unequal resources and insufficient teacher training remain [17]. Kenya and Uganda report increased engagement but face barriers such as limited internet access and technology infrastructure [18,19]. These cases underscore the importance of adapting innovative models like the FC to local contexts for optimal results.

This study focuses on Nigeria, where the National Policy on Education transitioned from the 6-3-3-4 system to the current 9-3-4 structure in 2006. Under the former system, students completed six years of primary, three years each of junior and senior secondary, and four years of tertiary education. The 9-3-4 structure, however, mandates nine years of free compulsory education (six years primary and three years junior secondary), followed by three years of senior secondary and four years of higher education [20,21]. A key feature of this system is its initial place (nine years), commonly called the Universal Basic Education (UBE), which emphasizes practical skills to better prepare students for the workforce [22,23]. In line with the new policy, mathematics is compulsory for progression to tertiary education, requiring a minimum credit pass (50%) [24,25]. Nevertheless, performance in mathematics at the Senior School Certificate Examinations (SSCE) remains poor despite multiple interventions [26].

In this context, the FC model emerges as a potential solution. In two separate Nigerian studies, refs. [27,28] conclude that adopting the FC approach significantly improves mathematics achievement and shifts instruction from teacher-centered to student-centered, increasing engagement and collaboration. These findings highlight the value of technology in education and suggest that policymakers should support broader adoption. Ref. [29] also confirms the FC model’s ability to improve both achievement and interest in secondary mathematics. However, there is limited research on teachers’ experiences with the FC model in Nigerian secondary schools, indicating a need for further investigation.

Therefore, the current study addresses this gap by assessing teachers’ experiences with the FC model in Nigerian senior secondary mathematics classrooms. From the account of ref. [30], teachers are pivotal to successful implementation, as their expertise and commitment directly influence the leaning outcomes. Their insights can inform classroom management, foster active learning, and help tailor instruction to diverse student needs. Moreover, teacher feedback is crucial for refining teaching strategies and improving educational results. his study aims to contribute to the literature and inform policy in Nigeria and beyond, recognizing that understanding how innovative mode.

ls like the FC are applied in different settings is vital for advancing mathematics education and student success.

1.2. Contextualizing the Current Research with Insights from Our Previous Study

Contextualizing new inquiries within prior studies is useful in framing educational research [31]. Our earlier research examined senior secondary students’ mathematics learning experiences in flipped classrooms, providing foundational insights that inform our present study on teachers’ perspectives on the instructional model. While students reported positive experiences, we consider it valuable to also explore how teachers view and implement the FC model. This gap underlines the rationale for surveying teachers’ assessments of the approach as well, given their critical role in its implementation. In addition, their insights can further enrich our understanding of its use, benefits, challenges, and areas for improvement [14,32].

The earlier study evaluated 266 senior secondary school year-two (SSS2, called Grade 11 in most other countries) students’ experiences of receiving mathematics instruction in flipped classrooms for ten weeks. Executed in a Local Government Area (LGA) of Oyo State, Nigeria, only nine out of the thirteen secondary schools in the LGA agreed to participate in the inquiry. By random sampling, four schools with a total population of 794 students were selected. These schools—anonymized as P, Q, R, and S for participant privacy [33]—had varying numbers of SSS2 classes: two of them had four classes each, one had three, and one had five. The final sample consisted of 266 students from eight SSS2 classes (two from each school), each with one mathematics teacher. These eight classes were coded as Q1, Q2, R1, R2, S1, S2, T1 and T2 (e.g., Q for a set of two classes from a school). According to [34], proper sampling is necessary for equal representation and strong statistical findings.

Drawing on the suggestion from [35] that training teachers is crucial for effective implementation of educational interventions, the participating teachers underwent training on the application of FC model before the commencement of that research. They were taught how to incorporate technology into their classroom practices, utilize assessment strategies, and adapt lessons for diverse learning needs. This training sought to enhance their skills for clearly conveying the model’s dynamics to support better student learning experiences. The primary researcher later visited the teachers’ classrooms to confirm that the teachers appropriately applied the strategies learned during training.

In consistency with research ethics [33,34], research approval was obtained from the Ministry of Education and written informed participant consent was secured prior to conducting the inquiry. The data collection instruments were a questionnaire, classroom observation protocol, and semi-structured interview guide, all informed by analyses of similar studies and expert consultations. Input from three experienced mathematics teachers and a psychometrician improved the tools’ face and content validity. Expert validation is recognized as a fundamental component of the research process, with face and content validity acting as key qualitative techniques for ensuring precise measurement of intended constructs [36]. Pilot testing with 78 students from two classes in a school outside the main study yielded a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.71 for the questionnaire; a Cohen’s Kappa inter-rater reliability coefficient of 0.74 for the observational data, and a Cohen’s Kappa inter-coder reliability coefficient of 0.77 for the interview data. These reliability coefficients indicate acceptable reliability levels [37,38].

The Flipped Mathematics Classroom Student Feedback Questionnaire (FMC-SFQ) assessed the participants’ demographic details and experiences with flipped classrooms using a four-point Likert scale. The Flipped Mathematics Classroom Observation Protocol (FMC-OP) evaluated classroom environments, teaching practices, student interactions, and overall implementation. Lastly, the Flipped Mathematics Classroom Semi-structured Interview Guide (FMC-SIG) contained ten open-ended questions—five focused on benefits and challenges experienced during flipped learning of mathematics and five aimed at gathering suggestions for improving the model’s implementation. This study adopted a mixed-method approach featuring an explanatory sequential design, which took place in two phases: quantitative data collection first, followed by qualitative data gathering.

The first phase utilized questionnaires to gather data on participants’ views about the FC model for senior secondary mathematics, analyzing it quantitatively with descriptive statistics and the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test for paired samples. The second stage utilized the qualitative data from classroom observations and semi-structured interviews to provide a deeper understanding and validate the quantitative results. In consonance with [39] on the criticality of mitigating research biases, the following actions were taken during the previous investigation: only willing schools were involved in the inquiry to counter selection bias; anonymity in questionnaire responses minimized response bias. A standardized classroom observation protocol limited observer bias. All data-gathering instruments were validated to prevent measurement bias, and objectivity was prioritized during data analysis to lessen confirmation bias. These measures collectively strengthened this study’s validity and reliability in clarifying student feedback on the FC approach.

The findings of the previous study reveal a statistically significant improvement in the students’ experiences post-intervention, showcasing the model’s capacity to improve student engagement and learning. Despite encountering challenges with time management and self-paced learning, the students appreciated the autonomy and flexibility offered by video lessons and pre-class resources. To maximize the potential of the FC model in senior secondary mathematics, this research recommends the cruciality of addressing key issues such as planning, availability of resources, technology access, teacher preparation, and student participation. This study further suggests that teachers provide structured guidance for pre-class tasks and create environments conducive to student adaptation.

This context validates our current research into teachers’ viewpoints on the use of FC model for senior secondary mathematics instruction. While our previous inquiry highlighted students’ positive experiences with the instructional model, understanding how teachers implement and evaluate it is equally vital for successful adoption. By delving into teachers’ insights, the present research deepens the discourse surrounding the model while providing practical implications for improving teaching practices and student engagement in mathematics. The insights may inform the design of supportive teacher training initiatives that promote productive pedagogical practices and a more collaborative learning culture. Summarily, the current study stresses the importance of a holistic view of educational innovations that incorporate both student and teacher experiences in achieving quality mathematics instruction.

1.3. Focus of the Present Study

Adoption of the flipped classroom model in senior secondary mathematics education in Nigeria is gaining significant attention as a method to enhance student engagement and performance [28,29]. However, there is limited understanding of teachers’ perceptions and evaluations of this instructional model. Initial observations (from our earlier study) indicate that teachers face challenges such as creating appropriate pre-class materials, ensuring student preparedness, selecting suitable technological resources, and managing classroom activities during interactive sessions [1,6,28]. Therefore, this study aims to examine teachers’ experiences with the FC model in the context of senior secondary mathematics education in Nigeria. The insights gained may help shape professional development initiatives and educational policies that support effective practices in this teaching model.

1.4. Research Questions

To actualize its goal, this study set out to answer the questions below:

• RQ-1: What are teachers’ experiences of teaching senior secondary mathematics through flipped classrooms?
• RQ-2: Are there significant differences in teachers’ experiences of teaching senior secondary mathematics through flipped classrooms?
• RQ-3: What support or resources do teachers need to effectively implement flipped classrooms in senior secondary mathematics?

1.5. Literature Review

The FC model represents a vital innovation in education, shifting traditional teaching toward active, student-centered, technology-driven learning. With technology at its core, this approach enhances student engagement, motivation, and achievement while modernizing teaching methods [2,9]. Understanding teachers’ perspectives on implementing flipped classrooms for senior secondary mathematics is essential for evaluating its effectiveness and addressing its challenges [11]. This literature review explores relevant past studies on teachers’ perceptions of this model and its implications, particularly for teaching and learning of senior secondary mathematics.

Ref. [40] assessed the FC model in undergraduate mathematics by interviewing 19 faculty members from 14 institutions. They concluded that while instructors shared similar motivations to boost student engagement and learning outcomes, their implementation strategies varied widely, often relying on video lectures. Instructors viewed the model as effective for creating a more interactive learning environment that deepens students’ understanding of mathematical concepts. This suggests a need to investigate whether Nigerian senior secondary mathematics teachers are motivated to adopt this approach and whether their adoption levels differ. Ref. [41] carried out a qualitative case study with eight mathematics instructors who had implemented the FC model. The instructors reported that while the model is effective for mathematics instruction, it may not suit all subjects. The study explores the benefits and constraints of adopting the model for mathematics instruction.

Ref. [11] explored perceptions among 57 middle school teachers regarding flipped classrooms. Their findings indicated that science and mathematics teachers were more receptive to implementing this approach than English language and social sciences teachers. According to the study, for effective use of the FC model, teachers must improve their knowledge and skills. Analyzing how K-12 teachers perceived the model, ref. [42] noted variations by content area and grade level. Data from a survey of 44 teachers in Minnesota uncovered that the participants viewed the FC model as employing diverse instructional techniques, promoting higher-order thinking and active learning, and encouraging student-teacher interaction. These insights imply that Nigerian mathematics teachers might share similar views on the model’s benefits, underscoring the importance of considering grade level and content area when evaluating its effectiveness.

Ref. [32] conducted a mixed-method investigation into teachers’ views of the advantages and obstacles involved in adopting the FC model. Teachers reported that it facilitates student engagement and creates dynamic classroom environments, but they also pointed out serious obstacles related to technology and increased teacher workload. They advocated for institutional support and professional development to improve implementation. Ref. [43] explored teachers’ perceptions of the FC model in Yogyakarta through qualitative interviews with five public and private school teachers. The research uncovered that the model encourages student motivation while supporting critical thinking, problem solving and active learning. These findings provide a framework for examining how Nigerian mathematics teachers might evaluate the model’s effectiveness in developing these skills among senior secondary students.

These collective findings from the past studies highlight potential benefits of the FC model, such as increased student engagement, motivation and achievement, as well as challenges like teacher workload, varying student digital literacy levels, and the need for institutional support. Addressing these concerns is crucial for understanding how teachers’ perceptions of the model’s effectiveness and for informing educational policies that support innovative teaching methods. While previous research provides valuable insights across various contexts, further studies specifically focused on Nigerian senior secondary mathematics, are needed.

1.6. Theoretical Structure

In this study, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework developed by [44] provides the theoretical foundation for investigating technology integration in flipped classrooms (see Figure 1). TPACK emphasizes the interplay of technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK), asserting that effective teaching requires integrating these domains to create meaningful learning experiences. The present study uses TPACK to explore how teachers perceive and implement the FC model to enhance senior secondary mathematics instruction. In this model, the students engage with content outside class, fostering more interactive and collaborative learning during face-to-face sessions. Through TPACK, teachers are better positioned to select technologies that align with pedagogical strategies and content, such as instructional videos and interactive online exercises.

Research indicates that teachers with robust TPACK competencies utilize technology more effectively, thereby enhancing student engagement and achievement [44,45]. TPACK promotes critical thinking by allowing students to engage with mathematical content before class, facilitating deeper reflection and leading to richer classroom discussions. Moving from passive to active learning environments strengthens students’ critical thinking and collaborative skills. To maximize the impact of TPACK within the FC model, teachers must select interactive digital tools and design technology-integrated lesson plans. Professional development programs focused on TPACK can equip teachers with the skills necessary for successful FC implementation.

Recent studies affirm the strong relationship between TPACK and the FC model in advancing secondary mathematics education, highlighting that the quality of FC outcomes relies heavily on teachers’ ability to integrate technology, pedagogy, and content [46]. Additionally, teacher self-efficacy plays an important role in technology integration [47], while technology readiness and adaptation are crucial for effective TPACK application [48]. Strong TPACK foundations are further shown to enhance teachers’ confidence, leading to more successful FC adoption [16]. Collectively, these findings underline that leveraging TPACK improves instructional quality and cultivates deeper student engagement and understanding.

In this study, TPACK supports differentiated instruction, allowing students to engage with mathematical concepts at their own pace while encouraging teachers to reflect on and adapt their practices based on student feedback. Technologies effective in FC environments include dynamic geometry software (e.g., GeoGebra), collaborative platforms (e.g., Google Classroom), and multimedia resources like instructional videos. Such tools facilitate interactive learning, aid conceptual visualization, and provide immediate feedback through online quizzes to reinforce understanding.

While TPACK offers a solid foundation for integrating technology into flipped classrooms [44], some researchers caution that an overemphasis on technology may marginalize pedagogical and content knowledge, particularly where digital access or institutional support is lacking [49]. Senior secondary mathematics teachers might prioritize technological tools over meaningful strategies, resulting in superficial implementation [50]. Furthermore, systemic barriers—such as rigid curricula, inequitable resource distribution, and teacher resistance to student-centered methods—may undermine TPACK’s effectiveness [16,45].

Effective implementation requires teachers to avoid using technology for its own sake, ensuring alignment with learning objectives and addressing equity concerns [44,49]. Disparities in student digital access necessitate hybrid strategies, including offline resources, to promote inclusivity [48]. Professional development initiatives that bridge gaps in technological and pedagogical readiness, such as workshops on AI-driven analytics or LMS platforms, are essential for sustaining effective TPACK integration [45]. When applied systematically, TPACK enables technology (e.g., simulations for clarity), pedagogy (e.g., collaborative problem-solving), and content (e.g., tailored mathematical tasks) to work synergistically [47]. However, institutional support, ongoing training, and balanced structures are crucial to prevent passive learning and ensure dynamic, equitable flipped classrooms [16,50].

In summary, while TPACK offers opportunities to strengthen student engagement in FC settings, challenges such as limited technological access, inadequate training, and student resistance to new methods persist. Overcoming these challenges demands continuous professional development and institutional support for teachers to create environments conducive to successful FC adoption. This study analyzes teachers’ experiences with the FC model through the TPACK framework, aiming to identify the strengths and challenges in applying it to senior secondary mathematics education in Nigeria. Understanding these perspectives is critical for informing future policies and practices related to technology integration. Ultimately, applying TPACK may provide a holistic, scalable approach to improving flipped classroom instruction and student outcomes in Nigeria and similar contexts.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Design

The current research followed an explanatory sequential mixed-method design to understand teachers’ experiences with flipped classrooms in senior secondary mathematics instruction. This approach incorporates quantitative data obtained from questionnaires and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews conducted in two distinct phases, as visually summarized in Figure 2. The first stage focused on analyzing quantitative data gathered via questionnaires to identify broad patterns in teachers’ experiences within flipped mathematics classrooms. Consisting of 12 close-ended questions, the questionnaires utilized a 5-point Likert scale (Strongly Disagree, SD = 1; Disagree, D = 2; Neutral, N = 3; Agree, A = 4 and Strongly Agree, SA = 5), enabling the collection of structured data for statistical analysis. The initial quantitative phase aimed to provide a general overview of teachers’ perceptions and challenges related to application of the FC model.

The second stage utilized qualitative data from semi-structured interviews to corroborate the quantitative findings, providing a deeper understanding of the factors shaping teachers’ perceptions. Triangulating quantitative and qualitative data increases this study’s validity, offering a more comprehensive analysis. This approach aligns with studies like [51,52,53], which document that such designs improve credibility, capture both broad patterns and in-depth perspectives, and uncover unexpected insights, particularly in education and social sciences. The sequential design also ensured that the qualitative phase was informed by the quantitative results, allowing for a precise examination of key issues identified earlier.

2.2. Sampling

The participants were eight mathematics teachers from four secondary schools. Out of the thirteen secondary schools in the LGA, only nine expressed interest in this research. Of these willing nine schools, four were randomly chosen and involved in the earlier study. As a result, the number of participants in the present study could not be more than eight teachers because each participating school had only two mathematics teachers assigned to its senior secondary classes. Identifier codes Q1, Q2, R1, R2, S1, S2, T1 and T2 were assigned to the teachers based on their respective classroom names.

2.3. Instrument Development and Validation

The researchers of this study created the questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide deployed for data collection through a thorough literature search and expert consultations. Input from four specialists (one experienced psychometrician and three senior secondary mathematics teachers) enabled substantial improvements in the measuring tools, giving them face and content validity. Pilot testing with four teachers from two senior secondary schools outside the main study demonstrated reliability. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was 0.72. The reliability of the interview guide was established through coding consistency, where the primary researcher coded the interview data collected twice, yielding a Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of 0.74. These reliability index values suggest acceptable internal consistency across both instruments [37,38].

The Flipped Mathematics Classroom Teacher Appraisal Questionnaire (FMC-TAQ) was divided into five sections (A to E). Section A focused on the participants’ demographic characteristics. As shown in

Table 1. Participants’ demographic details.

Demographics	Category	Q1	Q2	R1	R2	S1	S2	T1	T2	Total
Gender	Male	🗸				🗸	🗸		🗸	4
	Female		🗸	🗸	🗸			🗸		4
Age	Below 30									0
	30–50	🗸		🗸	🗸	🗸	🗸		🗸	6
	51–55		🗸					🗸		2
	Above 55									0
Years of Teaching Experience	0–10									0
	11–20	🗸	🗸		🗸	🗸		🗸	🗸	6
	21–35			🗸			🗸			2
Highest Qualification	B.Ed.			🗸	🗸				🗸	3
	B.A./B.Sc.	🗸	🗸			🗸	🗸	🗸		5

, the sample exhibited balanced gender representation (4 males and 4 females) and a uniform teaching experience: all participants possessed a minimum of ten years’ experience teaching SSS 2 and held at least a Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics Education. Collecting such demographic data serves three critical purposes: it contextualizes this study’s setting, enhances the analytical robustness of findings, and supports generalizability by highlighting participant diversity [54,55]. Taken together, these factors improve the validity of conclusions and ensure actionable recommendations.

The other sections (B to E) consist of eighteen questions probing relevant aspects such as teaching practices, opportunities, challenges and teacher perceptions of flipped classrooms. The questionnaires were utilized to measure teachers’ experiences with the model. According to [56], this scale provides clarity and facilitates quantitative data analysis while reducing ambiguity. Similarly, ref. [57] states that questionnaires are reliable tools for quantifying responses and simplifying administration, enabling researchers to gather information from larger samples without direct researcher influence.

The Flipped Mathematics Classroom Semi-structured Interview Guide (FMC-SIG) was designed to gather additional information about the participants’ experiences with the FC model, specifically on the support or resources teachers need to be able to effectively implement it for senior secondary mathematics. As advised by [58], the interview guide includes questions that facilitate in-depth exploration of participants’ experiences for effective data collection. It consists of seven open-ended questions aimed at prompting participants to expand on their questionnaire responses. By integrating quantitative and qualitative information, this study seeks to analyze teacher perspectives to refine flipped classroom practices in senior secondary mathematics instruction and contribute to better educational outcomes.

2.4. Prominent Flipped Classroom Strategies Implemented

Before each in-class lesson, the teachers introduced the upcoming topics and shared relevant video lessons, worked examples, and worksheets mainly through platforms such as WhatsApp, Bluetooth and email. They sourced most instructional materials from YouTube’s Online Education Resources (OER) and created additional resources to closely align with the lesson objectives. The teachers instructed the students to engage with the video lessons and study the supplementary materials at their own pace as part of their out-of-class activities, typically conducted at home. This strategy enables students to become familiar with the content, grasp fundamental concepts, and apply the knowledge gained during class.

In the previous study, the lesson observation visits made by the primary researcher to participating schools confirmed that the students arrived at the classes with both digital and printed materials, which they had engaged with as their pre-class assignments. This preparation enabled spending in-class time on tackling complex problems and discussing challenging mathematics concepts. The teachers facilitated interactive quizzes and group work activities designed to promote collaboration in their individual classrooms. The seating arrangement encouraged peer interaction, allowing students to learn from one another while tackling higher-order questions.

Following each in-class session, the teachers implemented post-class activities aimed at reinforcing and expanding on the concepts learned. These activities included assessment tasks such as quizzes and assignments to evaluate students’ comprehension of the material covered. The teachers also involved the students in individual and group projects that applied mathematical concepts to real-world scenarios, cultivating deeper learning. They presented additional practice exercises to help solidify the students’ skills while incorporating reflection activities that prompted the students to assess their learning experiences and identify opportunities for improvement. The teachers facilitated online discussions, creating a platform for ongoing interaction about the learning material. This environment enabled the students to pose questions and exchange their ideas outside the classroom. Feedback sessions conducted by the teachers on post-class assessments guided the students in enhancing their understanding. Together, these components sustained engagement with the content beyond the classroom experience, supporting the students’ problem-solving performance. Figure 3 [59] offers a synopsis of the strategies adopted in the flipped classrooms.

2.5. Procedure for Gathering Teachers’ Flipped Classroom Experiences

After applying the FC model in their respective mathematics classes for ten weeks, the eight teachers were asked to evaluate their experiences with this model. On the Friday of the 11th week, just before the start of the students’ examinations, each teacher received a copy of the FMC-TAQ to complete over the weekend. All participants returned their copies of the questionnaire the following Monday as planned. Later that week, at their convenience, each teacher was engaged in a thirty-minute semi-structured interview to elaborate on their questionnaire responses. Ref. [60] describes the semi-structured interview as an exploratory method that supports flexibility around a central topic. This approach enables researchers to explore emerging themes during interviews, yielding deeper insights. While interviewing the eight teachers, the primary researcher exploited this flexibility to modify questions based on participants’ responses, capturing a broad spectrum of contexts and behavior. The questionnaires and interview data collected were analyzed in the subsequent section.

3. Results

This study investigated teachers’ experiences with flipping senior secondary mathematics classrooms. The participants’ feedback was evaluated mainly through mean scores, standard deviations, and Kruskal–Wallis H tests. A thematic analysis of the interview responses highlighted the necessary supports they require for effectiveness. To provide context for the results, the participants’ demographic information is first analyzed.

3.1. Analysis of Participants’ Demographic Details

Participant demographic details are crucial for a researcher to assess whether the sample accurately reflects the larger population. Gathering useful demographic data on participants—such as gender, age, race, education, and income—elevates the generalizability of findings and reveals variations among subgroups. Demographic context is essential for accurately interpreting research results [61,62]. The participants’ genders, ages, highest qualifications, and years of teaching experience were collected. As illustrated in Table 1, the sample consists of eight mathematics teachers (coded as Q₁, Q₂, R₁, …, T₂) with an equal representation of male and female participants.

This balance is a positive indicator of diversity within the sample. Six out of the eight participants were aged between 30 and 50 years. All of them had also taught mathematics at the secondary school level for at least eleven years. Their ages and years of teaching experience suggest that they were both active and experienced. In terms of teacher qualifications, they all met the National Policy on Education requirement stipulating that every teacher at senior secondary level in Nigeria must possess either a Bachelor’s degree in Education (B.Ed.) or a Bachelor’s degree with a Postgraduate Diploma in Education [21,63]. Expectedly too, they were registered with the Teachers’ Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN). Overall, the sample appears diverse and representative of the population and could be considered appropriate for the interpretation of the research results.

3.2. Analysis of Teachers’ Responses to Questionnaire Items

3.2.1. Answering Research Question 1

To answer research question 1, the following calculations, as shown in

Table 2. Frequency of the participants’ responses per category ($n=8$).

S/N	Questionnaire Item	SD	D	N	A	SA
		1	2	3	4	5
Section B: Teaching Practices in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
1.	I find teaching in an FC setting easy, exciting and enjoyable.	0	1	2	2	3
2.	I often provided structured guidance to my students for pre-class tasks.	0	0	2	2	4
3.	FC has enhanced my ability to clarify complex mathematical concepts during class time.	0	1	1	2	4
4.	I encouraged group work activities during in-class sessions.	0	0	0	3	5
5.	I adopted after-class online discussion for continued collaboration.	0	0	0	3	5
6.	The flipped classroom model has positively impacted my teaching practices.	0	0	1	3	4
Section C: Opportunities in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
7.	Adopting FC model has resulted in a higher student engagement.	0	0	0	3	5
8.	The FC approach fosters a greater student ownership of learning.	0	1	1	2	4
9.	The FC approach promotes collaborative learning among students	0	0	1	2	5
10.	FC strategies develop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills.	0	0	1	2	5
11.	FC enables me to meet my students’ individual needs better.	0	0	2	3	3
Section D: Challenges in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
12.	Developing instructional materials such as video lessons and online content for flipped classes is challenging for me.	2	2	0	2	2
13.	Students often struggle with completing their pre-class tasks before class.	2	2	0	2	2
14.	Limited technological resources hinder successful adoption of FC for mathematics instruction.	0	0	0	4	4
15.	Utilizing the FC approach makes effective management of class time more difficult compared to traditional teaching methods.	2	2	0	3	1
16.	With FC, assessing student learning outcomes is more difficult relative to traditional methods.	3	2	0	2	1
Section E: General Perception of Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
17.	The FC approach can help senior secondary students understand and perform better in mathematics than traditional teaching methods.	1	1	0	2	4
18.	I support that the flipped classrooms be adopted for senior secondary mathematics.	0	1	1	2	4

,

Table 3. Total weighted scores per category ($n=8$).

S/N	Questionnaire Item	SD	D	N	A	SA	Mean	SD	Rating
		1	2	3	4	5	$\overline{x}$	σ
Section B: Teaching Practices in Flipped Classrooms
1.	I found teaching in an FC setting easy, exciting and enjoyable.	0	2	6	8	15	3.88	1.13	Positive
2.	I often provided structured guidance to my students for pre-class tasks.	0	0	6	8	20	4.25	0.89	Very Pos.
3.	FC has enhanced my ability to clarify complex mathematics concepts.	0	2	3	8	20	4.13	1.13	Positive
4.	I encouraged group work during in-class sessions.	0	0	0	12	25	4.63	0.52	Very Pos.
5.	I adopted after-class online discussion for continued collaboration.	0	0	0	12	10	4.63	0.52	Very Pos.
6.	The FC model has positively impacted my teaching practices.	0	0	3	12	20	4.38	0.74	Very Pos.
Rating Average							4.32	0.82	Very Pos.
Section C: Opportunities in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
7.	Utilizing the FC model has resulted in a higher student engagement.	0	0	0	12	25	4.63	0.52	Very Pos.
8.	The FC approach fosters a greater student ownership of learning.	0	2	3	8	20	4.13	1.13	Positive
9.	The FC approach promotes collaborative learning among students.	0	0	3	8	25	4.5	0.76	Very Pos.
10.	FC strategies develop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills.	0	0	3	8	25	4.5	0.76	Very Pos.
11.	FC enables me to meet my students’ individual needs better.	0	0	6	12	15	4.13	0.83	Positive
Rating Average							4.38	0.8	Very Pos.
Section D: Challenges in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
12.	Developing instructional materials such as video lessons and online content for flipped classes is challenging for me.	2	4	0	8	10	3	1.69	Moderate
13.	Students often struggle with completing their pre-class tasks before class.	2	4	0	8	10	3	1.69	Moderate
14.	Limited technological resources hinder successful adoption of the FC model.	0	0	0	16	20	4.5	0.53	Very Pos.
15.	Utilizing FC makes effective management of class time more difficult compared to traditional teaching methods.	2	4	0	12	5	2.88	1.55	Moderate
16.	With FC, assessing student learning outcomes is more difficult relative to traditional teaching methods.	3	4	0	8	5	2.5	1.6	Negative
Rating Average							3.18	1.41	Moderate
Section E: General Perception of Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
17.	The FC approach can help senior secondary students understand and perform better in mathematics than traditional teaching methods.	1	2	0	8	20	3.88	1.55	Positive
18.	I support that the FC model be adopted for senior secondary mathematics.	0	2	3	8	20	4.13	1.13	Positive
Rating Average							4.01	1.34	Positive
Overall							3.98	1.04	Positive

Note: The total weighted score for each category in Table 3 is computed by multiplying the weight of the response given (SD = 1; D = 2; N = neutral = 3; A = 4; SA = 5) by each frequency value given in Table 4. For example, for question 1, 0 participants chose SD = 1 (1 × 0 = 0); 1 participant chose D = 2 (2 × 1 = 2); 2 participants chose N = Neutral = 3 (3 × 2 = 6); 2 participants chose A = 4 (4 × 2 = 8) and 3 participants chose SA = 5 (5 × 3 = 15).

and

Table 4. Likert scale scoring range adapted from [64].

Rating Description	Score	Mean Rating	Interpretation
Strongly Disagree (SD)	1	1.00–1.80	Very Negative
Disagree (D)	2	1.81–2.60	Negative
Neutral (N)	3	2.61–3.40	Moderate
Agree (A)	4	3.41–4.20	Positive
Strongly Agree (SA)	5	4.21–5.00	Very Positive

, were performed:

• RQ-1: What are teachers’ experiences of teaching senior secondary mathematics through flipped classrooms?

Table 3 indicates a predominantly positive trend in the participants’ responses regarding their FC teaching practices. In Section B, four out of six questions received very positive responses, while two were rated positively. This pattern is consistent with Section C, where three questions garnered very positive feedback and two received positive ratings. These findings suggest that the participants generally recognized the benefits of implementing the FC model for senior secondary mathematics. The data in Section C (on the model’s benefits) imply that teachers perceive that it can support student engagement, promote collaborative learning, motivate students to be more accountable for their learning, develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and enable teachers to better meet individual students’ needs. Despite this positivity, all participants, in Section D, acknowledged that flipping senior secondary mathematics has its challenges.

Specifically, four of the eight participants found developing video lessons and other digital content challenging (questions 12 and 15); four participants noted difficulties with students completing pre-class tasks (question 13) and managing class time effectively; all the eight participants highlighted challenges related to technological resources (question 14); three participants agreed that assessing student performance was more difficult in flipped classrooms than traditional ones (question 16), while the remaining five reported otherwise. On average, according to Table 3, the participants rated their challenges with the FC model as moderate. Referring to questions 17 and 18 about their general perceptions and recommendability of the model for senior secondary mathematics instruction, six out of the eight participants responded positively (see Table 3). In summary, a combined mean score of 3.98, with a standard deviation of 1.04, indicates that teachers generally had an overall positive experience utilizing the FC model in their mathematics classes. Thus, question 1 has been answered.

3.2.2. Answering Research Question 2

To address research question 2, the analysis below, as depicted by

Table 5. Analysis of the participants’ responses to each questionnaire item.

S/N	Questionnaire Item	Q		R		S		T
		Q1	Q2	R1	R2	S1	S2	T1	T2
Section B: Teaching Practices in Flipped Mathematics. Classroom
1.	I found teaching in a FC setting easy, exciting and enjoyable.	SA	SA	D	N	N	A	A	SA
2.	I often provided structured guidance to my students for pre-class tasks.	SA	SA	N	N	A	SA	A	SA
3.	FC has enhanced my ability to clarify complex mathematics concepts.	A	SA	N	D	A	SA	SA	SA
4.	I encouraged group work activities during in-class sessions.	SA	SA	A	A	A	SA	SA	SA
5.	I adopted after-class online discussion for continued collaboration.	SA	SA	A	A	A	SA	SA	SA
6.	The FC model has positively impacted my teaching practices.	A	SA	N	A	SA	SA	SA	A
Section C: Opportunities in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
7.	Utilizing FC has resulted in a higher student engagement in my classes.	SA	SA	A	A	A	SA	SA	SA
8.	The FC approach fosters a greater student ownership of learning.	SA	A	D	N	A	SA	SA	SA
9.	FC promotes collaborative learning among students.	SA	SA	D	A	A	SA	SA	SA
10.	FC strategies develop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills.	SA	SA	D	A	A	SA	SA	SA
11.	FC enables me to meet my students’ individual needs better.	SA	A	D	A	A	SA	SA	SA
Section D: Challenges in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
12.	Developing instructional materials such as video lessons and online content for flipped classes is challenging for me.	SD	SD	SA	SA	A	A	D	D
13.	Students often struggle with completing their pre-class tasks before class.	SD	D	SA	SA	A	A	D	SD
14.	Limited technological resources hinder successful adoption of the FC model.	SA	SA	A	SD	A	A	A	SA
15.	Utilizing the FC approach makes effective management of class time more difficult compared to traditional teaching methods.	SD	SD	SA	A	A	A	D	D
16.	With FC, assessing student learning outcomes is more difficult relative to traditional teaching methods.	SD	SD	SA	A	A	D	D	SD
Section E: General Perception of Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
17.	The FC approach can help senior secondary students understand and perform better in mathematics than traditional teaching methods.	SA	SA	SD	D	A	A	SA	SA
18.	I support that the FC model be adopted for senior secondary mathematics.	SA	SA	D	N	A	A	SA	SA

,

Table 6. Weighted analysis of the participants’ responses to each questionnaire item.

S/N	Questionnaire Item	Q1	Q2	R1	R2	S1	S2	T1	T2
Section B: Teaching Practices in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
1.	I found teaching in an FC setting easy, exciting and enjoyable.	5	5	2	3	3	4	4	5
2.	I often provided structured guidance to my students for pre-class tasks.	5	5	3	3	4	5	4	5
3.	FC has enhanced my ability to clarify complex mathematics concepts.	4	5	3	2	4	5	5	5
4.	I encouraged group work activities during in-class sessions.	5	5	4	4	4	5	5	5
5.	I adopted after-class online discussion for continued collaboration.	5	5	4	4	4	5	5	5
6.	The FC model has positively impacted my teaching practices.	4	5	3	4	5	5	5	4
Section C: Opportunities in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
7.	Utilizing the FC model has resulted in a higher student engagement in my classes.	5	5	4	4	4	5	5	5
8.	The FC approach fosters a greater student ownership of learning.	5	4	2	3	4	5	5	5
9.	The FC approach promotes collaborative learning among student.	5	5	2	4	4	5	5	5
10.	FC strategies develop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills.	5	5	2	4	4	5	5	5
11.	FC enables me to meet my students’ individual needs better.	5	4	2	4	4	5	5	5
Section D: Challenges in Flipped Mathematics Classrooms
12.	Developing instructional materials such as video lessons and online content for flipped classes is challenging for me.	1	1	5	5	4	4	2	2
13.	Students often struggle with completing their pre-class tasks before class.	1	2	5	5	4	4	2	1
14.	Limited technological resources hinder successful adoption of the FC model.	5	5	4	1	4	4	4	5
15.	Utilizing the FC approach makes effective management of class time more difficult compared to traditional teaching methods.	1	1	5	4	4	4	2	2
16.	With FC, assessing student learning outcomes is more difficult relative to traditional teaching methods.	1	1	5	4	4	2	2	1
Section E: General Perception of flipped mathematics classrooms
17.	FC approach can help senior secondary students understand and perform better in mathematics than traditional teaching methods.	5	5	1	2	4	4	5	5
18.	I support that the FC model be adopted for senior secondary mathematics.	5	5	2	3	4	4	5	5

,

Table 7. A summary of Kruskal–Wallis test using chi-square, χ², (df: 7) distribution (right-tailed).

Groups:	Q1	Q2	R1	R2	S1	S2	T1	T2
Skewness	−1.339	−1.3872	0.07073	−0.8744	0	−1.856	−1.1674	−1.4822
Excess kurtosis	−0.07969	0.1825	−1.3485	0.6432	8.5	4.5886	−0.3885	0.4972
Normality	0.000006745	0.00001096	0.03274	0.01608	0.000000514	0.00004464	0.00002742	0.000006112
Outliers	1, 1, 1, 1	1, 2, 1, 1		1	3, 5	2	2, 2, 2, 2	2, 1, 2, 1
Median	5	5	3	4	4	5	5	5
Sample size (n)	18	18	18	18	18	18	18	18
Rank sum (R)	1483	1496.5	895.5	912.5	1063.5	1542	1482.5	1564.5
Mean Rank	82.39	83.14	49.75	50.69	59.08	85.67	82.36	86.92
R2/n	122,182.72	124,417.35	44,551.15	46,258.68	62,835.13	132,098	122,100.345	135,981.123

χ²(7) = 21.9553, p = 0.002586, p(x $\le$ 21.9553) = 0.9974.

,

Table 8. Multiple comparisons of all possible pairs of groups through Dunn’s tests.

Pair	Mean Rank Difference	Z	SE	Critical Value	p-Value	p-Value/2
x1–x2	−0.75	0.05758	13.0254	40.6872	0.9541	0.477
x1–x3	32.6389	2.5058	13.0254	40.6872	0.01222	0.006109
x1–x4	31.6944	2.4333	13.0254	40.6872	0.01496	0.007481
x1–x5	23.3056	1.7892	13.0254	40.6872	0.07358	0.03679
x1–x6	−3.2778	0.2516	13.0254	40.6872	0.8013	0.4007
x1–x7	0.02778	0.002133	13.0254	40.6872	0.9983	0.4991
x1–x8	−4.5278	0.3476	13.0254	40.6872	0.7281	0.3641
x2–x3	33.3889	2.5634	13.0254	40.6872	0.01037	0.005183
x2–x4	32.4444	2.4909	13.0254	40.6872	0.01274	0.006372
x2–x5	24.0556	1.8468	13.0254	40.6872	0.06477	0.03239
x2–x6	−2.5278	0.1941	13.0254	40.6872	0.8461	0.4231
x2–x7	0.7778	0.05971	13.0254	40.6872	0.9524	0.4762
x2–x8	−3.7778	0.29	13.0254	40.6872	0.7718	0.3859
x3–x4	−0.9444	0.07251	13.0254	40.6872	0.9422	0.4711
x3–x5	−9.3333	0.7165	13.0254	40.6872	0.4737	0.2368
x3–x6	−35.9167	2.7574	13.0254	40.6872	0.005826	0.002913
x3–x7	−32.6111	2.5037	13.0254	40.6872	0.01229	0.006146
x3–x8	−37.1667	2.8534	13.0254	40.6872	0.004325	0.002163
x4–x5	−8.3889	0.644	13.0254	40.6872	0.5195	0.2598
x4–x6	−34.9722	2.6849	13.0254	40.6872	0.007255	0.003627
x4–x7	−31.6667	2.4312	13.0254	40.6872	0.01505	0.007525
x4–x8	−36.2222	2.7809	13.0254	40.6872	0.005421	0.00271
x5–x6	−26.5833	2.0409	13.0254	40.6872	0.04126	0.02063
x5–x7	−23.2778	1.7871	13.0254	40.6872	0.07392	0.03696
x5–x8	−27.8333	2.1369	13.0254	40.6872	0.03261	0.0163
x6–x7	3.3056	0.2538	13.0254	40.6872	0.7997	0.3998
x6–x8	−1.25	0.09597	13.0254	40.6872	0.9235	0.4618
x7–x8	−4.5556	0.3497	13.0254	40.6872	0.7265	0.3633

and

Table 9. The resulting mean rank differences from comparison of group pairs.

Group	Q2	R1	R2	S1	S2	T1	T2
Q1	−0.75	32.64	31.69	23.31	−3.28	0.028	−4.53
Q2	0	33.39	32.44	24.06	−2.53	0.78	−3.78
R1	33.39	0	−0.94	−9.33	−35.92	−32.61	−37.17
R2	32.44	−0.94	0	−8.39	−34.97	−31.67	−36.22
S1	24.06	−9.33	−8.39	0	−26.58	−23.28	−27.83
S2	−2.53	−35.92	−34.97	−26.58	0	3.31	−1.25
T1	0.78	−32.61	−31.67	−23.28	3.31	0	−4.56

, was carried out. Table 5 presents the participants’ Likert-scale responses to the questionnaire items, while Table 6 clarifies their responses with weighted values. Thereafter, Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9 summarize the Kruskal–Wallis test results, Dunn’s test results, and mean rank differences between groups, respectively.

• RQ-2: Are there significant differences in teachers’ experiences of teaching senior secondary Mathematics through flipped classrooms?

Based on this research question, the following research hypothesis is formulated:

H0. 

There are no significant differences in teachers’ experiences of teaching senior secondary mathematics through flipped classrooms?

The Kruskal-Wallis H test performed (at α = 0.05 significance level) on Table 4 data is selected over ANOVA because this study’s data violates the ANOVA normality assumption, as confirmed by the Shapiro–Wilk test (p-value as low as 0.00000675). Given our small sample size of eight participants, this non-parametric approach (considered equivalent to ANOVA) is more appropriate. Table 7 provides a summary of the test conducted.

Test Interpretation

(i)

Null hypothesis and assumptions: The Kruskal–Wallis H test assumes that all groups have the same mean rank scores or medians if distributions are similar in shapes. In this study, the distributions neither have similar shapes nor the same medians. However, at least one group has a mean rank score different from others. For instance, the difference between Q₁ and Q₂ = −0.75; the difference between R and Q is = 33.39, etc. (see Table 9 for comprehensive pairwise differences). Hence, the null hypothesis (H₀) is rejected.

(ii)

p-value interpretation: The p-value = 0.002586 indicates a low probability of observing these results by chance if H₀ were true. This suggests that rejecting H₀ is justified with only a 0.26% risk of committing a Type I error.

(iii)

Test statistic interpretation: The test statistic, $H=21.9553$ is compared to a Chi-square distribution with $k-1=7$ degrees of freedom ($k=8$). Since $H>14.0671,$ which is outside the acceptance region for α = 0.05, H₀ is rejected.

(iv)

Omnibus nature of Kruskal–Wallis test and follow-up tests: The Kruskal–Wallis test is an omnibus test that indicates overall differences without specifying which groups differ significantly from each other in terms of their mean rank scores. Thus, post hoc Dunn’s tests were conducted to identify specific pairwise differences among all possible pairs (see Table 8).

(v)

Conclusion: Given χ²(7) = 21.96, with p = 0.002586 < α, we reject the null hypothesis claiming that there are no significant differences in teachers’ assessments of their experiences with flipped classrooms across different groups, as evidenced by varying mean rank scores shown in Table 9. This clarifies research question 2.

3.3. Analysis of Teachers’ Responses to Semi-Structured Interviews

The interview data were analyzed using the six-step thematic analysis framework proposed by [65], which included initial data familiarization, code generation, theme development, review, refinement, and final naming of themes in line with research questions. The FMC-SIG questions that participants responded to are as follows:

• RQ-3: What support or resources do teachers need to effectively implement flipped classrooms in senior secondary mathematics?

1. Can you explainbriefly how you implemented the flipped classroom model in your mathematics classes? 2. Have there been any changes in student engagement or performance resulting from flipping your mathematics classroom? Elaborate on your answer please. 3. Can you identify any major factors that adversely affected your ability to implement the approach fully? 4. What tools or resources were most helpful in your adoption of the flipped classroom? 5. How were you able to obtain or develop those tools or resources? 6. Are there particular tools, materials or platforms you wish were available that could have improved your flipped classroom teaching? 7. What changes would you suggest are needed to improve the implementation of flipped classrooms in senior secondary mathematics?

Teacher Support Needs for Effective Flipping of Mathematics Classrooms

As identified from the participants’ responses to the interview questions, teacher support needs for effective implementation of the FC model in senior secondary mathematics fall into the following seven broad thematic categories:

• Theme 1: Technological resources

For effective content creation and delivery, teachers require reliable devices, strong and stable internet, and digital tools such as video-recording tools and interactive platforms like Desmos and GeoGebra. Learning management systems (LMS) like Google Classroom and Moodle are essential for organizing content and facilitating communication. Additionally, assessment tools such as Quizizz and Kahoot help track student progress by providing interactive evaluations that support tailored teaching strategies. While all participants recognized the necessity of sufficient technological resources to effectively flip their mathematics classrooms, Teachers R1, R2, S1, and S2 particularly stressed this point. Teacher R1 remarked on the limitations of their equipment, stating, “The projector and interactive whiteboards in my classroom are quite small”. Teacher R2 added, “The desktop computer is outdated and slow”. Teacher S2 pointed out the lack of school Wi-Fi, saying, “We rely on personal data for internet access, and many students have low-speed devices”. Teacher S1 shared similar concerns. Even Teachers Q1 and Q2 reported needing additional resources despite having better-equipped classrooms: “Providing us with video-recording tools and editing software would be beneficial”. Teacher S2 expressed, “I strongly wish each student could be given a laptop or tablet with regular data plans for pre-class activities”.

• Theme 2: Institutional support

As observed by participants, the success and sustainability of flipped classrooms depends on the level and quality of institutional support provided to them. Thus, schools must formulate supportive policies that foster an environment conducive to innovative learning. This includes equipping classrooms with modern technology such as smart boards and projectors, as well as supplying dependable IT assistance. Moreover, schools should ascertain that all students have equitable access to digital resources. This can be achieved by providing school-owned devices or establishing on-campus learning centers where students can access necessary tools. By doing so, institutions help bridge the digital divide, ensuring that every student has an equal opportunity to engage fully with the FC model. Teacher T1 emphasized the necessity of a Learning Management System (LMS), stating, “LMS platforms facilitate access to pre-class materials and improve communication between students and teachers”. Teacher R1, whose questionnaire responses are mostly “disagree” and “neutral”, argued, “For effective adoption of the model in mathematics, adequate professional development programs from the school and Ministry of Education are essential, focusing on technology integration, instructional design and active learning strategies”. Teacher S1 similarly suggested, “Schools and the education ministry should promote collaboration among teachers to share best practices”. Also, Teacher Q1 pointed out, “Schools should formulate supportive policies that provide clear implementation guidelines and ensure all students have access to necessary technology and tutoring support for those struggling with pre-class tasks”.

• Theme 3: Pedagogical training

Teachers demand pedagogical support to effectively structure and deliver lessons. Providing them with comprehensive training on instructional design, active learning techniques, and differentiated instruction equips them with strategies to engage students. Furthermore, offering them guidance on creating engaging video content, integrating problem-solving activities, and scaffolding mathematical concepts ensure that students benefit maximally from the FC model. Teacher Q2 observed, “In fact, just giving us the technology isn’t enough at all. We should also be trained on its proper use in a flipped classroom. They must teach us how to design activities that can promote critical thinking and active learning to be able to assist students finding abstract mathematical concepts difficult”. Supporting, Teacher T2 commented, “The training also has to include how to adopt differentiated instruction in a flipped classroom environment. Some students need more help than others. To effectively support their diverse learning needs, whether when they’re learning independently on pre-class tasks or collaboratively in class”. Highlighting the importance of training for creating engaging pre-class materials and collaborative activities, Teacher R2 explained, “We really need adequate training on proper ways to design effective pre-class materials and in-class collaborative, problem-solving activities and real-world applications that promote student engagement and active learning”. Teacher S1 also contributed, “Teachers should be equipped with strategies to assist students struggling with technology use in the flipped classroom setting and to help them adjust to taking more responsibility for their learning space”.

• Theme 4: Professional development and training

The participants believe teachers should be offered regular professional development opportunities to refine their flipped teaching practices. This can include organizing workshops focused on video content creation, student engagement strategies, and interactive assessments. According to Teacher Q1, “such training will not only enhance their skills but also build their confidence in implementing innovative teaching methods”. In his own case, Teacher T2 said that setting up professional learning communities and providing access to online courses can further support teacher development. Elaborating on this, Teacher S2 noted that these platforms enable teacher collaboration, sharing of effective strategies, and staying informed about the latest trends in flipped learning. Corroborating this view, Teacher Q1 commented, “By fostering a collaborative environment and keeping teachers updated on emerging methodologies, schools can ensure that teachers are well-equipped to deliver effective flipped classroom experiences.

• Theme 5: Student engagement and motivation tools

The success of the FC model relies on tools that can help teachers motivate and engage students properly. These tools are essential for tracking student accountability, providing timely feedback, and fostering motivation among students. As noted by Teacher S2, “Adoption of flipped classrooms doesn’t stop with having useful digital tools. It’s more of knowing how to apply them. I wish to learn how to use AI-enabled analytics for me to understand how to track my students’ progress, especially those struggling with certain mathematics concepts, giving them personalized feedback and support”. Likewise, Teacher Q1 opined, “I’ve realized that incorporating gamified elements into the pre-class activities increases student interest and participation. For instance, students appreciate content better when online quizzes with points and leader boards are introduced. On such occasions, they often complete assigned pre-class activities before class time”. Buttressing this, Teacher R1 remarked, “By using these resources, teachers can create more interactive and responsive learning environments”. Believing that it is not only teacher effort that can serve as supports for students, Teacher R2 remarked, “Parental involvement is also necessary to support students outside the classroom”. Buttressing this, Teacher T1 said, “Such an idea can encourage parents to help their children engage with pre-class activities at home and understand the principles of flipped learning”. On this theme, a perspective common to all participants is that the collaborative approach offers students steady support in school as well as at home, increasing their engagement with the FC model.

• Theme 6: Curriculum integration and content development

The participants felt that flipped classrooms can maintain consistency with educational standards by integrating the curriculum and developing content that support these standards. “A way to attain this is by making available pre-made educational content from platforms like Khan Academy and CK-12, which reduces the burden on teachers to create materials from scratch.”, commented Teacher Q2. Teachers Q1, T1 and T2 shared a common viewpoint. “Moreover, making adaptable lesson templates available along with structured guidance on how to integrate flipped learning into the curriculum can improve teachers’ efficiency”, Teacher S2 noted. Teacher R1 and T1 also contributed—Teacher R1: “It will be helpful if the ministry of education can provide us with guidance on how to align the current curriculum with the flipped classroom approach. Without this, many teachers may not find it easy to determine the flipped activities that can clearly support the learning standards and objectives”. Also, Teacher T1 responded, “ Having easy access to a collection of quality digital resources, like video lessons and other online resources already structured in line with the curriculum will certainly reduce our workload. It will also ensure that the content is both educationally sound and engaging”. Teacher T1’s view matches the opinions of Teachers R2 and S1. Overall, the participants stressed that the approach equips teachers with useful tools to design effective lessons while aligning with broader educational goals.

• Theme 7: Evaluation tools

The participants recommended that provision of appropriate evaluation tools can help refine teaching strategies for flipped classrooms in senior secondary mathematics. They specified that the analytics within the Learning Management Systems (LMS) are useful in monitoring student engagement and comprehension. Teacher Q1 noted, “With LMS analytics, I can track which students are struggling with certain mathematics concepts and adjust my teaching approach accordingly”. Appreciating the classroom response systems like Socrative and Plickers for instant feedback, Techer R1 remarked, “Socrative gives immediate feedback during lessons, allowing me to assess whether my students understand the content as we progress”. Teachers S2 highlighted how these insights help adapt teaching strategies to meet student needs, explaining, “Feedback from these systems shows me where students are excelling and where they need more support”. Corroborating this, Teachers T2 stated, “Evaluation tools improve teaching effectiveness by providing meaningful feedback”. In sum, the participants believed these tools enable teachers to tailor instruction effectively for students to properly understand mathematical concepts.

• Overall Implications of Themes

When equipped with these resources and support systems, teachers can successfully implement flipped classrooms for senior secondary mathematics instruction. This approach will allow them to create a highly engaging, student-centered learning environment that enhances both mathematical understanding and critical problem-solving skills. Through the strategic use of technology and interactive tools, educators can adapt instruction to meet varied learning needs, stimulate active participation among students, and encourage students to learn intricate mathematical concepts at their own speed. Consequently, students develop a profound appreciation for mathematics and become more adept at applying theoretical knowledge to practical problems.

4. Discussion

This study’s findings provide insights into teachers’ experiences with the adoption of the FC model for senior secondary mathematics instruction. The results reveal a predominantly positive trend in teachers’ assessments of their experiences, with a combined mean score of 3.98. This signifies that the model is generally well received by teachers in this context. Despite this positivity, teachers also pinpointed some challenges associated with utilizing this pedagogical approach. The overall positive trend observed in teachers’ evaluations of their experiences with the model (mean score = 3.98, SD = 1.04) agrees with findings from prior studies [66,67,68]. These studies similarly indicate that teachers perceive the FC model as beneficial for increasing student engagement and active learning. This study also concurs with [41,65], which reported that despite their positive experiences, teachers acknowledge certain challenges associated with its implementation.

The existence of significant differences in teachers’ assessments of their flipped classroom experiences across different groups, as evidenced by the H test results (χ²(7) = 21.96, p = 0.002586), suggest that various factors influence how educators perceive and adopt this model. These findings parallel those of [11,69], who discovered that factors such as teacher readiness, technological access, and pedagogical confidence play a critical role in shaping perceptions. Also, studies such as [1,29] emphasize how teachers’ experiences with flipped classrooms vary based on institutional support, student preparedness, and digital literacy levels. The disparities noticed in teachers’ assessments of their experiences suggest the necessity for tailored measures to overcome barriers in adopting the FC model.

The findings from the interview data indicate that teachers require support across seven key areas: technological resources, institutional support, pedagogical training, professional development, student engagement tools, curriculum integration, and evaluation methods. This resonates with previous research by [6,70], who highlight the cruciality of comprehensive professional development and institutional backing for successful FC implementation. Moreover, ref. [30] established that access to digital tools and well-structured instructional materials considerably enhances teachers’ ability to implement flipped learning effectively. Furthermore, the findings underscore the necessity of pedagogical training, as emphasized by [71], who documented that teachers transitioning to flipped instruction require structured training to navigate the new instructional dynamics. The need for student engagement and motivational tools is also reinforced by studies such as [69,72], which concluded that student-centered approaches, when well supported, can increase mathematics learning outcomes in the flipped classroom settings.

To further contextualize these findings, the classroom observation data from our earlier study were revisited. These observations, conducted across the same participating schools, manifested a consistent trend of improvement in FC implementation over time See Appendix A and Appendix B [59]. During the first visit, adherence to FC practices was moderate across schools, with implementation percentages ranging from 58% to 62%. By the second visit, there was a significant increase, with implementation percentages reaching 82% to 91%. This progression was marked by teachers’ more effective use of instructional videos, better facilitation of discussions, and students’ improved readiness and engagement. These observational trends provide valuable support for the teachers’ self-reported positive experiences and perceived improvements in student engagement, suggesting a connection between enhanced FC adoption credibility and teacher satisfaction.

Although the teachers’ overall response to the FC model was positive, significant disparities emerged due to unequal digital infrastructure and institutional support [14,19]. This highlights that implementation success relies on broader systemic and policy-level conditions, not just teacher motivation [18]. The differences in teachers’ experiences underline the necessity of targeted interventions, particularly in under-resourced schools. These findings align with the literature advocating for an Afrocentric and decolonized approach to curriculum and professional development designed to suit the local contextual requirements [2,48]. Interestingly, even some teachers with access to resources still reported challenges, an unexpected finding suggesting potential resistance to pedagogical shift or inadequate training in student-centered methods. A culture of support and innovation is therefore essential [15,16]. While the questionnaire responses suggested general approval of the FC model adoption for senior secondary mathematics, the qualitative interview insights exposed deeper concerns, highlighting the importance of sustained professional dialogue and comprehensive support structures.

This study’s results underline the essential role of technological resources and digital literacy in the effective application of the FC model. The effective use of digital tools and platforms can substantially enhance teachers’ capacity to engage students and facilitate active learning. Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, for instance, can tailor learning to individual needs, thereby making it more effective [73,74]. AI-driven analytics can help teachers assess student engagement and comprehension, allowing for more effective differentiation of instruction [73,75]. Additionally, AI-powered recommendation systems can help teachers select digital content that aligns with students’ learning needs, maximizing the FC experiences [74].

Moreover, the integration of computer networking and internet technologies can enable smooth access to learning resources, bridging gaps in digital access and promoting equity in education. A focus on interaction and information visualization is also required in designing more intuitive and user-friendly educational platforms. By applying principles from these fields, teachers can develop interfaces that are more engaging and easier to navigate, thereby improving their overall teaching experiences [76]. Again, this study highlights the essence of sufficient technological infrastructure, including reliable computers, internet connection, and other digital tools required for effective implementation [77].

The intersection of flipped learning and computer-based educational tools also underlines the significance of robust information systems for systematically managing and providing easy, uninterrupted access to instructional resources. Cloud-based learning management systems (LMS) and data-driven feedback mechanisms can enhance teachers’ ability to monitor student progress and adjust instructional strategies accordingly [78]. Such technological enhancements reflect earlier studies regarding AI’s influence on individualized learning [73] and highlight the potential of digital platforms in streamlining content delivery and fostering collaborative learning in mathematics education [76,79].

Essentially, integrating emerging computational tools and AI-driven automation holds significant potential for optimizing the FC adoption in secondary mathematics instruction. This approach not only supports the pedagogical goals of flipped learning but also aligns with broader trends in educational technology, emphasizing the role of technology in improving teaching and learning outcomes [73,74,77,79]. Incorporating these technological innovations allows teachers to establish more conducive learning environments for the FC model, enhancing its impact in senior secondary mathematics education.

5. Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations

In summary, this study highlights a generally favorable view of the FC model by teachers, a conclusion strengthened by complementary evidence drawn from classroom observations conducted in our prior research. Re-examining these observational findings illustrates a clear pattern of improved FC practices across participating schools, characterized by improved teacher facilitation and student engagement. The corroboration of teachers’ self-reported experiences with these empirical observations significantly bolsters the overall strength of this study’s conclusions. Appendix A and Appendix B [59] outline the observational findings reported by our earlier research.

This study expands on our prior research, which found that senior secondary students generally had positive experiences with flipped mathematics learning, even though they encountered certain challenges. By investigating teachers’ experiences and insights, the current study presents complementary perspectives that enhance our knowledge of the FC model. The results indicate that teachers also report positive experiences with adopting the model for senior secondary mathematics education; however, there were some variations in their experiences. Notably, they pointed out improvements in student engagement, particularly in terms of increased motivation and participation.

Moreover, the support systems that teachers identified, such as professional development opportunities and technical assistance, are vital in overcoming obstacles and ensuring successful implementation. These results showcase the importance of aligning teaching methods with student needs to create more supportive flipped learning environments. By delving into teachers’ experiences with the FC model as a follow-up to students’ experiences as examined by the earlier research, the current study presents a more comprehensive understanding of how teaching methods influence student engagement and achievement.

This study demonstrates that, while teachers in developing country settings such as Nigeria are open to implementing the FC model, their success depends on robust, context-sensitive support systems. Despite concentrating on a region (Nigeria), this study contributes a valuable localized perspective to the global discourse on flipped learning. However, it is important to acknowledge the potential limitations within this study. These include a small sample size and limited demographic diversity, which may impact the generalizability of its findings. Additionally, the context-specific nature of these results could restrict their applicability to other regions or educational settings outside our study area. Variability in how teachers implement the FC model may also affect outcomes.

Therefore, this study recommends that policymakers should invest in sustained professional development, digital infrastructure, and school leadership to facilitate effective and equitable implementation. Furthermore, fostering collaborative networks can help teachers navigate the complexities of this pedagogical shift. Future research should investigate how contextual factors like school location and cultural background affect teachers’ experiences with flipped classrooms and develop comprehensive support frameworks to ensure successful adoption. Due to limitations such as sample size and context, future research should focus on the long-term effects of the FC model and the influence of local factors on teachers’ experiences. Comparative and longitudinal studies are essential to evaluate the model’s sustainability, scalability, and impact on student achievement and teaching practices across diverse educational settings.

6. Implications of This Study for Policy and Practice

Insights into teachers’ experiences with flipped classrooms and their support needs for effective implementation can guide policymakers and educational leaders in designing structured professional development programs for teachers, allocate necessary technological resources, and create institutional support systems. This ensures that teachers receive sufficient training, technical assistance, and pedagogical guidance, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of flipped classrooms. In addition, policies can focus on equitable access to digital tools, addressing potential disparities among schools and students.