A Systematic Review of Blockchain-Based Initiatives in Comparison to Best Practices Used in Higher Education Institutions

Abstract

Blockchain technology, originally introduced through Bitcoin cryptocurrency in 2008, has rapidly expanded beyond its financial roots, offering innovative solutions for secure data management across various sectors, including education. Higher education institutions, faced with challenges in managing academic records, verifying degrees, assessing skills, and safeguarding personal data, have increasingly looked to blockchain for answers. Blockchain’s transparent, immutable, and decentralized nature provides potential solutions to these longstanding problems. This systematic review assesses blockchain-based proposals for academic certificates management, aiming to highlight globally recognized best practices, explore the latest applications, and identify key challenges hindering the widespread adoption of blockchain technology in education. A thorough discussion based on the findings introduces potential solutions to mitigate these challenges and provides insights into possible future research directions that could help overcome these obstacles.

1. Introduction

When an academic cycle concludes, graduates typically receive two key documents from their university: a diploma and a diploma supplement [1]. The diploma signifies the successful completion of a form of education, while the diploma supplement provides a detailed account of the grades achieved in each course, aligned with the chosen field of study or specialization. After graduation, job seekers often submit CVs that include educational credentials, but the risk of embellishing or fabricating academic qualifications creates challenges for employers in verifying the authenticity of these claims. This lack of verification can lead to inaccurate hiring decisions and raises concerns about the integrity of the hiring process, highlighting the need for a reliable method to confirm academic qualifications.

The issue of fake academic certificates is a serious problem in the education and employment sectors [2,3], and it is rooted in several distinct sources of fraud. Saleh et al. [4] identifies five categories of fake academic certificates. One primary source is “Degree Mills” where fraudulent institutions produce and sell diplomas to individuals without any genuine academic work. Another source is “Fabricated Documents”, where entirely fictitious degrees are created. A third source is “Modified Documents”, where legitimate academic records are altered, often to improve grades, change graduation dates, or falsify course content or specializations. “In-House Produced” certificates refer to documents that are forged by employees within legitimate educational institutions, using authentic paper and institutional seals, stamps, and signatures to create fraudulent documents. “Translations” of documents may be manipulated to meet the specific requirements of a receiving institution or country, where inaccuracies in translation are deliberately introduced to alter or misrepresent the content of the original certificate, such as course titles, grades, or qualifications, to make them appear more suitable or valid in the context of the receiving country’s educational standards.

In response to this issue, there is a push towards integrating digital verification systems that allow employers to securely access official academic records. These systems could provide a seamless way for employers to check the validity of a diploma, reducing the likelihood of fraud and enhancing the transparency of the hiring process.

1.1. Blockchain Architectural Overview

Blockchain technology provides a secure and transparent way for companies and institutions to verify the authenticity of diplomas. By recording educational credentials on a decentralized, immutable ledger, blockchain ensures that diplomas cannot be tampered with or forged. This solution mitigates the risk of fake diplomas, allowing employers and educational institutions to confidently authenticate the qualifications of applicants.

Blockchain, initially popularized by Bitcoin cryptocurrency in 2008 [5], is a decentralized global ledger consisting of a series of blocks containing transactions, connected using the hash function and arranged in chronological order [6]. Before being added to a block, the transaction is signed by users who possess a pair of public/private keys. After adding blocks, the global ledger is synchronized across the nodes in the network [6], so that the nodes have an updated copy of the ledger. There are four types of blockchains: public blockchain, private blockchain, hybrid blockchain and consortium blockchain [4]. In a public blockchain, anyone can verify to whom a certificate was issued, by whom, and validate the content of the certificate without having to contact the issuing institution [7]. The most well-known examples of public blockchain are Bitcoin and Ethereum [7]. A private blockchain is a permissioned one where a company controls it. The most well-known example of private blockchain is Hyperledger [8]. A hybrid blockchain is a combination of public and private blockchains [9]. For example, Dragonchain is a hybrid blockchain [10]. A consortium blockchain looks like a hybrid blockchain, but multiple organizations manage it [11]. Ethereum is often employed in consortium blockchain applications due to its flexibility and robust smart contract capabilities [11].

1.2. Related Works

From the time blockchain emerged in other fields, beyond its initial focus on finance, researchers have increasingly explored its potential as a solution in education, expanding the body of knowledge on blockchain-based systems for education. They have identified blockchain’s ability to combat diploma fraud [12,13,14], streamline administrative tasks [15], and create a seamless connection between education systems across different countries [16]. Figure 1 illustrates the steady growth of research related to the use of blockchain in education, showcasing the annual increase in the number of articles published on ScienceDirect. The data shown in the figure is derived from a search query using the terms “Blockchain in Education” within the ScienceDirect database, highlighting a rising trend in academic interest and exploration of how blockchain technology is being integrated into education. This surge in publications indicates growing recognition of blockchain’s potential to revolutionize various aspects of education, such as credentialing, data security, and learning management.

After blockchain technology was introduced in education, some influential reviews [7,9,17,18,19,20] have focused on outlining its various applications to underscore their potential benefits for companies and institutions. A systematic overview of blockchain applications in higher education is presented in [7], classifying them according to the topics addressed and presenting the challenges of implementing a specific blockchain-based platform. The benefits and challenges of adopting blockchain technology in education are presented in [17] along with a classification of blockchain applications according to a problem they address, which can be related to trust, privacy or security. Fedorova and Skobleva [18] propose a classification based on the fields of application of blockchain in education. Caldarelli and Ellul [19] present an overview of application characteristics and functions by categorizing them according to the blockchain platform on which they were developed. Lists of blockchain-based educational projects are presented in [9,20]. By categorizing and assessing its uses, they not only inform stakeholders but also establish a solid foundation for future academic research, encouraging further exploration of blockchain’s role in shaping the educational landscape. Although these systematic reviews describe and classify the characteristics of blockchain-based applications, they lack a clear classification of the stage of application development. This lack of classification makes it difficult to assess the potential for its use in the near future in solving the specific problems it aims to address.

1.3. Contributions

Compared to previous works, our research places a distinct emphasis on the development stage of blockchain-based applications as presented in the articles reviewed. By examining the development phase, we can better understand the progress of overcoming the key challenges that an application is addressing.

Therefore, this article makes the following key contributions:

• It offers an in-depth analysis of blockchain applications in higher education, evaluates their current development stages, and classifies them ranging from solutions that stands out as best practices to pilots, prototypes, frameworks and conceptual models focused on preventing the counterfeiting of diplomas and certificates.
• It offers an identification of challenges and barriers, such as lack of standardization, regulatory challenges, and financial constraints, that may be hindering the widespread global implementation of blockchain technology in education.
• It proposes potential solutions and recommends future research paths to address gaps and unresolved issues that require further investigation.

1.4. Objectives

The primary aim of this survey is to gather and systematically analyze recent, relevant research related to the impact of blockchain technology in combating the falsification of diplomas and certificates within higher education. By examining a broad range of applications developed in this field, this survey aims to provide a comprehensive overview, categorizing these applications based on their stage of development. This includes identifying best practices already implemented in pilot programs, evaluating prototypes and frameworks, and exploring conceptual models that have been proposed or tested. Additionally, the research will classify these applications according to their specific characteristics, offering valuable insights into how blockchain can enhance the integrity of academic credentials. Additionally, this review seeks to assess whether blockchain is evolving toward widespread, integrated use across educational systems or if it remains limited to fragmented and isolated implementations, and to better understand the factors that may be slowing its global implementation in education.

1.5. Research Questions

In accordance with the objectives of this systematic review, the following research questions were formulated to direct the focus of the study:

• RQ1: Which blockchain-based applications for educational purposes, developed in or in collaboration with universities, have proven effective, and which are still at various stages of development?
• RQ2: What are the main focus areas of blockchain-based applications developed for diploma and certificate management?
• RQ3: What are the key challenges in integrating blockchain technology into education and how can they be addressed to improve the management of diplomas and certificates?

1.6. Paper Outline

The rest of this paper is organized into several sections: Section 2 describes the search methodology, followed by Section 3, which presents the results of the systematic review. In Section 4 and Section 5, the findings are discussed, while Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8 explore future works, limitations, and conclusions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Protocol

This systematic literature review was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [21] to ensure rigor and reproducibility. PRISMA provides a structured framework for conducting reviews. The PRISMA approach involved the following systematic steps:

• Identification—involves a strategy to locate all relevant articles and includes searching multiple databases using keywords and Boolean operators tailored to the research topic.
• Screening—helps to eliminate any irrelevant articles or articles that align with the exclusion criteria.
• Inclusion—following eligibility assessment, articles that met all inclusion criteria were confirmed for the systematic review.

In Figure 2, the PRISMA flow diagram presents the articles selection procedure.

Therefore, the PRISMA diagram illustrates the selection procedure as follows:

• Identification—Articles were retrieved from MDPI (14 articles), ResearchGate (100 articles), IEEE Xplore (212 articles), and ScienceDirect (3 articles).
• Screening—In the first phase, titles and abstracts were reviewed to ensure relevance to blockchain applications for diploma management, and 111 articles addressing unrelated domains were excluded. In the next phase, after reviewing the reference lists of eight articles which were cited a large number of times, five of them were eliminated. A total of 183 articles were removed because they were articles that aligned with the exclusion criteria.
• Inclusion—The final list of 28 studies was confirmed and prepared for analysis.

The detailed process of article selection is presented in Section 2.2, Section 2.3, Section 2.4 and Section 2.5.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

This survey aims to systematically collect and analyze recent research on the role of blockchain technology in addressing the issue of diploma and certificate falsification in higher education.

To maintain focus on the most current insights and developments, only articles published between 2020 and 2024 will be included in the analysis.

Only articles published in peer-reviewed journals and reputable conference proceedings were considered. This ensures the inclusion of high-quality, credible sources that have undergone rigorous academic scrutiny. By focusing on these publications, the review maintains a high standard of evidence and relevance, excluding non-peer-reviewed or less reliable materials. This approach enhances the validity and trustworthiness of the findings derived from the systematic review process.

The articles included in the systematic review were required to be written in English to facilitate comprehensive analysis.

For an article to be included in the systematic review, the publication’s full content must be available online, not only the title and abstract. This ensures that the review is based on comprehensive, detailed information from each study, allowing for a more thorough evaluation of its methodology, results, and conclusions. Access to the complete text is essential for assessing the quality and relevance of the research, helping to avoid any potential biases that might arise from relying on limited or incomplete information.

Articles included in the systematic review must address the applicability of blockchain technology in education degree management.

The inclusion and exclusion criteria that articles included in this systematic review were required to meet are specified in

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Addresses the applicability of blockchain technology in the management of degrees in education	The articles were not published between 2020–2024
	The articles were not published in journals or conference proceedings
	The articles are written in a language other than English
	Only the title and abstract are available online, not the full content of the publication

.

Although these criteria were designed to identify all relevant articles, the authors acknowledge that some potentially valuable resources may have been unintentionally excluded. To address this limitation, a strategy was implemented to review the reference lists of eight articles, which were cited a large number of times, included in the final sample. This process aimed to identify any relevant articles that might have been overlooked during the initial selection. Any articles found through this reference review were then subjected to the same exclusion criteria and, if deemed appropriate, were included in the final selection to ensure a comprehensive representation of the available literature.

2.3. Database Selection

The articles underlying this review are open access, allowing interested parties to analyze them and use the insights to identify the most effective solutions for combating diploma fraud. The databases consulted were chosen due to their comprehensive coverage of high-quality, peer-reviewed research in the fields of technology, computer science, and educational innovations, which are particularly relevant to blockchain applications in higher education.

The databases consulted were as follows:

• MDPI, a robust platform that offers open-access journals that frequently publish cutting-edge studies in the field of blockchain technology and its applications in education.
• ResearchGate, a solid platform, providing access to a broad range of research materials across various disciplines.
• IEEE Xplore, a comprehensive digital library with a focus on engineering, technology, and computer science, offering researchers, academics, and professionals access to a comprehensive collection of peer-reviewed journals or conference papers.
• ScienceDirect, operated by Elsevier, a leading full-text scientific database offering access to a vast collection of peer-reviewed journals, books, and articles.

2.4. Search Process

The search was conducted using MDPI, ResearchGate, IEEE Xplore, and ScienceDirect with keywords that were grouped together, each group of keywords being joined using the OR operator, while the groups themselves are joined together with the AND operator. Based on these, the following search string was constructed: (“blockchain”) AND (“applications” OR “platform” OR “prototype”) AND (“academic certificates” OR “diplomas” OR “credentials”) AND (“university” OR “higher education”). The search string was applied to MDPI, ResearchGate, IEEE Xplore, and ScienceDirect. The initial results of this search are shown in

Table 2. Initial results of the search.

Database	Where the Search String Was Applied	Results
MDPI	Title/Keyword	14
ResearchGate	Publications	100
IEEE Xplore	Publications	212
ScienceDirect	Title, abstract, keywords	3

.

2.5. Screening Process

After performing the search and deleting duplicates, the screening process began with reading the titles and abstracts of the initial search results and excluding 111 articles; which were not related to blockchains applications for diploma management.

The second phase in the selection process was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines [21] and involved removing articles that were aligned with the exclusion criteria.

In order to ensure the analysis reflects the most recent advancements and perspectives, only articles published between 2020 and 2024 were selected for inclusion. This focus on recent literature helped prioritize the latest findings and developments in the field. Consequently, 14 articles that fell outside of this publication range were excluded from the review.

As they did not fulfill the criteria of being published in peer-reviewed journals or presented at reputable conferences, a total of 31 articles were excluded from the systematic review.

One article written in Russian was removed; the rest of the screened results were in English.

To be included in the systematic review, the full content of an article must be accessible online, not just the title and abstract. This requirement ensured that each study could be thoroughly evaluated. As a result, 26 articles were excluded from the review because their full content was not available online.

A total of 108 articles were excluded from the systematic review as they did not focus on the applicability of blockchain technology in the management of diplomas in education. These studies were not aligned with the specific topic of interest, which was to explore how blockchain can be integrated into the educational credentialing process, and therefore were deemed irrelevant to the scope of the systematic review.

For clarity, a summary of the screening process is presented in

Table 3. Papers excluded after screening process with reasons.

	MDPI	ResearchGate	IEEE Xplore	ScienceDirect
The articles were not published between 2020–2024	0	6	8	0
The articles were not published in journals or conference proceedings	1	29	1	0
The articles are written in a language other than English	0	1	0	0
Only the title and abstract are available online, not the full content of the publication	0	25	0	1
Does not address the applicability of blockchain technology in the management of degrees in education	2	19	87	0

.

To address risk of bias, we conducted a ‘snowball’ search by reviewing the reference lists of articles which were cited a large number of times, which led us to identify eight additional articles. Using Google Scholar, we located and analyzed these studies, ultimately including three of them in the systematic review.

2.6. Data Extraction

A data extraction form was employed to systematically gather relevant information from the studies included in the review, ensuring a consistent and accurate data extraction process. Tailored specifically for this review, the form contained eleven key items, as outlined in

Table 4. Data extraction form items.

Data Item	Description
Title	Title of the paper
Authors	The author(s) name(s)
Country	Country of the authors
Scientific Database	MDPI ResearchGate
	IEEE Xplore
	ScienceDirect
	Google Scholar
Type of publication	Journal
	Conference Proceedings
Type of article	Case study
	Systematic review
	Research Article
Date	Publishing year
What does it describe?	Short summary of the publication
Current state of the application	Production
	Pilot
	Prototype
	Framework
	Model
Name	Name of the application
Blockchain	Type of blockchain

, which were designed to capture essential details such as the type of article, findings, current state of blockchain application, type of blockchain used, and other relevant variables. By utilizing this standardized data extraction form, the review ensured that information from all studies was collected in a consistent and uniform manner. This approach allowed for a clear and structured comparison across the studies, facilitating a thorough and organized analysis of the research. The uniformity in data collection not only enhanced the accuracy of the review but also supported the identification of patterns, trends, and key insights across the included studies.

2.7. Data Analysis

After extracting the data from the included papers, a detailed analysis was conducted to identify patterns and derive meaningful insights. The analysis was guided by three pre-determined main themes, which were aligned with the research questions to ensure the study remained focused and relevant. These themes included the stage of application development, the focus areas of blockchain-based applications, and the key challenges identified in the research. By categorizing the data under these key themes, the analysis offered a structured overview of the current trends, advancements, and challenges in the application of blockchain technology within the field of education.

3. Results

The core focus of this systematic review is to analyze papers that provide in-depth information on the use of blockchain technology in universities for the issuance and verification of diplomas and transcripts, examining applications at various stages of implementation. After a thorough screening process, 28 articles were deemed relevant and included in the review, offering valuable insights into the current state of blockchain adoption in higher education.

3.1. Study Selection

To summarize (see Figure 2), 329 records were extracted from the selected databases. In the first phase, 10 articles were removed because they were duplicates, and then 111 articles were excluded because they were not related to blockchain applications for diploma management. A further eight articles were found by reviewing the reference lists of articles that were cited a large number of times and searched on Google Scholar. Five of these retrieved articles were excluded due to their scope. After the eligibility criteria phase, there were 183 articles eliminated. Finally, 28 articles met the eligibility criteria described in this article and were included in this systematic review.

3.2. Study Characteristics

The distribution of included articles by year of publication is illustrated in Figure 3. As shown, all articles included in the review were published within the last five years, highlighting the emphasis of this systematic review on current developments and applications. The concentration of articles in 2024 reflects the growing recognition of the importance of blockchain technology in the education sector and the increasing efforts to explore its potential.

The distribution of included articles by publication type is shown in Figure 4. As illustrated, a significant majority of included articles, notably 75%, were published in academic journals, highlighting the importance of peer-reviewed academic sources in the field. The remaining articles were published in conference proceedings, reflecting ongoing discussions and emerging research presented at academic conferences. This distribution highlights the strong presence in this systematic review of high-quality studies published in established journals.

3.3. Summary of the Selected Papers

Table 5. Relevant papers.

Research Title	Authors	Summary of the Research
CredChain: Academic and Professional CertificateVerification System using Blockchain	Ahmed et al. [22]	Describes CredChain, a blockchain-based solution designed for secure certificate verification, developed in Bangladesh. The ready-to-use application, achieved by integrating InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) with Ethereum decentralized applications (dApps) and Smart Contracts, enables certificate uploading, verification and retrieval, providing a successful and practical solution for institutions, employers and students for credential authentication.
Cost-Effective and Efficient Blockchain Framework for Verifying Certificate in Yemeni Universities	Alkhawi and Alshameri [23]	Proposes a blockchain-based framework designed for the secure verification of certificates issued by Yemeni universities. Universities send a copy of a student’s certificate after graduation, which is uploaded to the peer-to-peer file system. A hash points to the file stored on IPFS and is attached to a paper certificate to authenticate it. This hash is then stored on the Ethereum blockchain, and a dApps web application serves as the user interface for uploading and verifying the certificates. A detailed analysis of the transaction costs associated with the implementation of their framework is also made.
Trusted Academic Transcripts on the Blockchain: A Systematic Literature Review	Caldarelli and Ellul [19]	Examines the use of blockchain technology for managing academic transcripts, categorizing the studies based on the type of blockchain used—public, private, or consortium blockchains—and addressing the challenges posed by the oracle problem.
Blockchain Technology: Redefining Trust for Digital Certificates	Capece et al. [24]	Describes the process of implementing a pilot program at the University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, to issue diplomas to a group of students after customizing three tools from the Blockcerts toolkit.
Blockchain and Higher Education Diplomas	Castro and Oliveira [13]	Examines articles that describe platforms utilizing blockchain technology in education. The review focuses on examining various platforms that implement blockchain for managing educational credentials, specifically higher education diplomas. By analyzing these platforms, the study highlights the potential benefits of using blockchain, such as increased security, transparency, and efficiency in verifying and issuing diplomas, while also exploring the challenges and opportunities within the educational sector.
Blockchain in Higher Education: Advancing Security, Verification, and Trust in Academic Credentials	Cuya and Palaoag [25]	Describes a blockchain-based prototype system for issuing, distributing, and sharing academic credentials. The proposed platform integrates blockchain technology, IPFS and cryptographic hash functions to ensure the authenticity of academic credentials.
Blockchain Applications in Education: A Systematic Literature Review	Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. [26]	Offer an overview of the current state of the art related to blockchain in education.
NFTs for the Issuance and Validation of Academic Information That Complies with the GDPR	Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. [26]	Describes a model for issuing and verifying certificates using non-fungible tokens (NFTs) supported by blockchain technologies, focused on compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
A Systematic Review and Multifaceted Analysis of the Integration of Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain: Shaping the Future of Australian Higher Education	Elkhodr et al. [27]	Explore the potential of blockchain to enhance various aspects of the education system, with a specific focus on Australia. The study highlights how blockchain can improve credential management, ensure academic integrity, increase administrative efficiency, and optimize funding mechanisms. By integrating blockchain with artificial intelligence, the authors emphasize its transformative potential in reshaping higher education, addressing challenges, and creating more streamlined, transparent, and secure systems within Australian universities.
Application of Blockchain Technology in Higher Education	Fedorova and Skobleva [18]	Discusses the potential benefits of blockchain in areas such as credential verification, student data management, and academic record-keeping, emphasizing its ability to prevent fraud, streamline administrative processes, and ensure the integrity of educational credentials. Additionally, the authors examine the challenges and limitations of implementing blockchain in education and suggest strategies for overcoming these obstacles.
Expedition to the blockchain application potential for higher education institutions	Gottlieb et al. [20]	Presents blockchain-based projects that can address various challenges in education, such as credential verification, student record management, credit management, reputation management, and university admission application system.
Integrating an academic management system with blockchain: A case study	Guerreiro et al. [28]	Pilots a blockchain-based certificate issuance and verification system using the QualiChain platform in Portuguese public administration as part of the EU H2020 QualiChain pilot program. This initiative combines the FenixEdu academic management system, developed by researchers at Instituto Superior Técnico in Lisbon, with the QualiChain platform to create a decentralized solution for storing, sharing, and verifying educational and employment qualifications. By connecting these systems, the diploma hash issued by FenixEdu is inserted into the Ethereum blockchain with QualiChain, ensuring secure, tamper-proof verification of educational credentials.
Decentralizing Certificates Issuance Through Blockchain	Heredia et al. [29]	Describes a blockchain-based prototype system that records certificates using the Smart Ecosystem for Learning and Inclusion (SELI) platform.
Building a Decentralized Education Ecosystem: Politehnica University of Timisoara’s Pioneering Blockchain Initiatives	Holotescu et al. [30]	Presents the process of integrating verifiable credentials on European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI) in conjunction with the Moodle-based learning platform of the Politehnica University of Timisoara, as part of the project “EBSI4RO: Connecting Romania through Blockchain”, focusing on a case study for a student who graduated with a bachelor’s degree at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, then completed a master’s degree at the University of Athens in Greece and then applied for a PhD at the University of Lille in France.
Ethereum-Based Information System for Digital Higher Education Registry and Verification of Student Achievement Documents	Kistaubayev et al. [31]	Describes the development of the UniverCert platform which aims to serve as a unified digital register for students’ educational achievements, securely storing various important certificates. These include diplomas that verify the completion of bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degrees, academic transcripts detailing a student’s academic history, diploma supplements providing additional context to the qualifications, and certificates of completion for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) that involve credit transfer. By consolidating these credentials in one digital platform, UniverCert provides a reliable and efficient way to handle educational documentation. At the same time, it makes a detailed analysis of the costs involved in the use of the prototype in terms of gas for the entire higher education system of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Application and Evaluation of a Blockchain-Centric Platform for Smart Badge Accreditation in Higher Education Institutions	Kontzinos et al. [32]	The pilot, part of the EU H2020 QualiChain pilot program, is focused on optimizing the teaching process, curriculum, and university operations, as well as recognizing and verifying the skills and qualifications of undergraduate and PhD students at the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering of National Technical University of Athens in Greece. The QualiChain platform was tested in this context to provide students with tools to build their academic and professional profiles, offer personalized recommendations for course selection, and provide analytics to restructure the curriculum to meet current labor market needs. The platform utilized blockchain technology to issue smart badges that accredited students and lecturers for their performance, validating both hard and soft skills.
Towards an IPFS-Blockchain based Authentication/Management System of Academic Certification in Western Balkans	Leka et al. [33]	Describes a blockchain-based prototype system, BCert, for issuing, distributing, and sharing academic credentials. The proposed solution integrates blockchain technology and IPFS to ensure the authenticity of academic credentials. Also, a model was predicted for launching technology to the market, based on the concept of Technology Transfer.
Digital Certifications in Moroccan Universities: Concepts, Challenges, and Solutions	Litoussi et al. [34]	Proposes a model called BCSC-Dapp for managing Moroccan students’ certificates, aiming to unify all certificates, both academic and professional, into a single account for each student. In Morocco’s centralized certificate system, each university and internship provider creates separate accounts for students, leading to multiple accounts for a single student if they have obtained certificates from different universities or completed various internships. The BCSC-Dapp model seeks to streamline this by consolidating all these certificates into one unified account, simplifying the management and access to a student’s complete academic and professional credentials.
A Blockchain-Based Conceptual Model for Curbing Institutional Academic Certificate Fraud	Nzaro et al. [35]	Describes a blockchain-based model that addresses internal fraud activities caused by the assumption that university-issued certificates are genuine.
Blockchain in Education: A Systematic Review and Practical Case Studies	Ocheja et al. [36]	Provides an overview of blockchain research in education and analyzes two case studies that offer solutions beyond issuing and validating diplomas on blockchain. The first case study presents the SELI platform which provides an inclusive learning environment for teachers and learners. The second case study presents the Blockchain of Learning Logs (BOLL) platform, focused on developing connected lifelong learning recorded on blockchain.
DIAR: a blockchain-based system for generation and verification of academic diplomas	Rustemi et al. [37]	Outlines a conceptual model, DIAR, for the generation and verification of diplomas, while also proposing the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities into certain processes to improve their functionality.
Blockchain based framework for educational certificates verification	Saleh et al. [4]	Describes security features of some platforms that use blockchain technology in education and proposes a blockchain-based framework for secure and reliable student record management using Hyperledger Fabric Framework.
IPFS-Blockchain Smart Contracts Based Conceptual Framework to Reduce Certificate Frauds in the Academic Field	Sultana et al. [38]	Presents a blockchain-based system for issuing and verifying certificates, along with an analysis of security concerns.
AlgoCert: Adopt Non-transferable NFT for the Issuance and Verification of Educational Certificates using Algorand Blockchain	Tahlil et al. [39]	Presents a prototype, AlgoCert, for issuing and verifying certificates using NFTs, smart contracts and the Algorand blockchain.
Verification of Education Credentials on European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI): Action Research in a Cross-Border Use Case between Belgium and Italy	Tan et al. [40]	Focus on verifying student ID information and transcripts of records between KU Leuven and Università di Bologna, from the Una Europa network, using EBSI.
Cerberus: A Blockchain-Based Accreditation and Degree Verification System	Tariq et al. [41]	Describes a blockchain-based prototype for issuing, revoking, and verifying academic credentials.
A Secure Blockchain Based Student Certificate Generation and Sharing System	Venkatramulu et al. [42]	Proposes a blockchain-based framework for issuing and verifying certificates using Ethereum and describes the applications needed to generate the students’ academic certificate, share it on a secure digital platform, store it and verify it by third parties
Blockchain Application in Higher Education Diploma Management and Results Analysis	Vidal et al. [43]	Describes the platforms that use blockchain technology in education and proposes a blockchain-based prototype for secure and reliable student record management, where they have successfully issued, revoked, distributed and verified academic certificates. They implemented the prototype on Bitcoin and Ethereum to evaluate the ability of the prototype to achieve the desired property of blockchain compatibility.
Revocation Mechanisms for Academic Certificates Stored on a Blockchain	Vidal et al. [44]	Describes mechanisms for revoking digital diplomas that may have been incorrectly issued.

provides a list of articles selected for this systematic review, accompanied by descriptions that summarize their main findings and contributions. This analysis helps to map out the current state of research and serves as an essential reference for understanding the breadth of research in the field, allowing readers to quickly grasp the core themes and innovations explored in the literature. In Section 4, a detailed comparison of these articles is offered, highlighting the primary contributions of each study. This section further classifies the articles according to various factors, including the level of development of the proposed initiatives, the specific themes they address, and the key challenges identified. This classification aims to offer a clear understanding of the current landscape of research on blockchain in education, enabling a nuanced examination of the progress, gaps, and ongoing challenges in the field.

3.4. Categorization of Articles

The findings from the 28 articles reveal several key insights that deepen our understanding of where blockchain-based applications are headed:

• Researchers’ holistic approach to application development: Researchers, in addition to exploring blockchain’s role in issuing and verifying certificates, are increasingly focusing on its potential in diploma management to support cross-border educational mobility and lifelong academic and professional performance tracking. The contributions made by the papers selected for review are presented in

  Table 6. Contributions of the selected articles.

  Article	Authors	The Main Purpose	Describes Initiative	Includes Experimental Results	Includes Cost Analysis
  CredChain: Academic and Professional CertificateVerification System using Blockchain	Ahmed et al. [22]	Certificate verification	Yes	Yes	Yes
  Cost-Effective and Efficient Blockchain Framework for Verifying Certificate in Yemeni Universities	Alkhawi and Alshameri [23]	Certificate verification	Yes	Yes	Yes
  Trusted Academic Transcripts on the Blockchain: A Systematic Literature Review	Caldarelli and Ellul [19]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  Blockchain Technology: Redefining Trust for Digital Certificates	Capece et al. [24]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	No	No
  Creducate: Blockchain-based Academic Record Management and Verification System Built in the Solana Network	Castillo et al. [45]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	Yes
  Blockchain and Higher Education Diplomas	Castro and Oliveira [13]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  Blockchain in Higher Education: Advancing Security, Verification, and Trust in Academic Credentials	Cuya and Palaoag [25]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Blockchain Applications in Education: A Systematic Literature Review	Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. [26]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  NFTs for the Issuance and Validation of Academic Information That Complies with the GDPR	Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. [26]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  A Systematic Review and Multifaceted Analysis of the Integration of Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain: Shaping the Future of Australian Higher Education	Elkhodr et al. [27]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  Application of Blockchain Technology in Higher Education	Fedorova and Skobleva [18]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  Expedition to the blockchain application potential for higher education institutions	Gottlieb et al. [20]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  Integrating an academic management system with blockchain: A case study	Guerreiro et al. [28]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Decentralizing Certificates Issuance Through Blockchain	Heredia et. al. [29]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Building a Decentralized Education Ecosystem: Politehnica University of Timisoara’s Pioneering Blockchain Initiatives	Holotescu et al. [30]	Certificate issuance and verification that facilitate cross-border educational mobility	Yes	No	No
  Ethereum-Based Information System for Digital Higher Education Registry and Verification of Student Achievement Documents	Kistaubayev et al. [31]	Lifelong academic and professional achievement management	Yes	Yes	Yes
  Application and Evaluation of a Blockchain-Centric Platform for Smart Badge Accreditation in Higher Education Institutions	Kontzinos et al. [32]	Lifelong academic and professional achievement management	Yes	Yes	No
  Towards an IPFS-Blockchain based Authentication/Management System of Academic Certification in Western Balkans	Leka et al. [33]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Digital Certifications in Moroccan Universities: Concepts, Challenges, and Solutions	Litoussi et al. [34]	Lifelong academic and professional achievement management	Yes	No	No
  A Blockchain-Based Conceptual Model for Curbing Institutional Academic Certificate Fraud	Nzaro et al. [35]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	No	No
  Blockchain in Education: A Systematic Review and Practical Case Studies	Ocheja et. al. [46]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No
  DIAR: a blockchain-based system for generation and verification of academic diplomas	Rustemi et al. [37]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	No	No
  Blockchain based framework for educational certificates verification	Saleh et al. [4]	Certificate verification	Yes	No	No
  IPFS-Blockchain Smart Contracts Based Conceptual Framework to Reduce Certificate Frauds in the Academic Field	Sultana et. al. [38]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	Yes
  AlgoCert: Adopt Non-transferable NFT for the Issuance and Verification of Educational Certificates using Algorand Blockchain	Tahlil et al. [39]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Verification of Education Credentials on European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI): Action Research in a Cross-Border Use Case between Belgium and Italy	Tan et al. [40]	Certificate issuance and verification that facilitate cross-border educational mobility	Yes	No	No
  Cerberus: A Blockchain-Based Accreditation and Degree Verification System	Tariq et al. [41]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  A Secure Blockchain Based Student Certificate Generation and Sharing System	Venkatramulu et al. [42]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	No	No
  Blockchain Application in Higher Education Diploma Management and Results Analysis	Vidal et al. [43]	Certificate issuance and verification	Yes	Yes	No
  Revocation Mechanisms for Academic Certificates Stored on a Blockchain	Vidal et al. [44]	Blockchain initiatives analysis and categorization	Yes	No	No

  .

2.

Increased interest of researchers in this field by identifying a large number of early-stage research in universities: There is a growing interest among universities in adopting blockchain technology to issue and verify diplomas, driven by its potential to reduce fraud and streamline the credentialing process. However, while many universities are exploring this innovative approach [18,27], most of the initiatives are still in the early stages of development. These efforts primarily consist of conceptual models, theoretical frameworks, prototypes, or pilot implementations that demonstrate the feasibility of blockchain in education but have not yet evolved into commercially viable solutions.

Table 7. Blockchain initiatives in universities.

Stage of Development	Articles
Production	[4,13,18,19,22,24,27,43,44,47]
Prototype	[29,31,33,39,41,43,44]
Framework	[4,23,25,42]
Pilot	[24,28,30,32,40]
Model	[26,34,35,37,38]

categorizes the applications presented in the selected research articles into five distinct groups.

3.

Shifting the development trajectory of credential management applications through blockchain technology by directing research towards the use of smart contracts:

Bitcoin is the pioneer of cryptocurrencies and introduced the revolutionary concept of blockchain technology [5], which focuses on enabling secure, decentralized transactions without the need for intermediaries like banks. Launched in 2009 by the pseudonymous creator Satoshi Nakamoto, Bitcoin operates on a distributed ledger system where every transaction is verified by a network of computers, or nodes, ensuring transparency, immutability, and security. Each transaction is recorded in a “block” and linked to the previous one, creating a chain of blocks, hence the term blockchain [5]. This decentralized and cryptographic structure makes Bitcoin resistant to fraud and manipulation, as the network collectively validates transactions. Bitcoin’s success has paved the way for other cryptocurrencies and blockchain applications, showcasing how blockchain can provide a secure and trustworthy way to exchange value, store information, and maintain digital assets. MIT Media Lab and Machine Learning chose to start developing Blockcerts on the Bitcoin blockchain rather than Ethereum because they considered it the more powerful technology and because Bitcoin is associated with robust financial investments, meaning it has a better chance of survival. The University of Nicosia also developed Block.co on the Bitcoin blockchain with the aim of leveraging the secure and trusted system for validating digital credentials. Another two initiatives, based on Blockcerts, use the Bitcoin blockchain in research, both published in 2020, early in the period when papers were included in this systematic review. One initiative is by Capece et al. [24] that describe the process of implementing a pilot program at the University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, to issue diplomas to a group of students after customizing three tools from the Blockcerts toolkit and testing compatibility with the Blockcerts wallet and the Blockcerts Universal Verifier. The other initiative uses Bitcoin and Ethereum to implement its prototype, CertEdu [43], used for diploma management and built on the Blockcerts platform.

After Ethereum stood out, not only as a blockchain, but also as a powerful development platform that allows developers to create and implement dApps and smart contracts, most research in education moved to Ethereum. On the Ethereum blockchain, 11 studies [22,23,25,26,28,32,34,37,38,41,42] included in this systematic review propose solutions for diploma management, while [29,31,47] propose their solution on the Ethereum consortium. Launched in 2015 by Vitalik Buterin and others, Ethereum extended the functionality of blockchain beyond cryptocurrency to support decentralized computing. The Ethereum platform also supports the creation of tokens via standards like ERC20, allowing for the issuance of digital assets and cryptocurrencies. Ethereum’s flexibility and robust ecosystem have made it a cornerstone for blockchain innovation, driving widespread adoption and inspiring countless projects within the decentralized web (Web3) movement.

When designing a system that prioritizes data privacy, Hyperledger is often the preferred choice. Hyperledger is a permissioned blockchain framework, meaning it operates in a controlled environment where only authorized participants can access and participate in the network [48]. Hyperledger has emerged as a leading solution for enterprise blockchain applications, offering several frameworks tailored to different use cases. Some of the key frameworks within the Hyperledger ecosystem include Iroha, designed for simple mobile applications; Sawtooth, built for scalability and modularity; Fabric, which is widely adopted for business process management due to its flexibility and extensive support for smart contracts; Indy, focused on identity management and decentralized identity systems; and Burrow, a blockchain client with a focus on smart contract execution [49,50]. With features such as private data collections, channel-based communication, and robust encryption protocols [8], Hyperledger Fabric is an ideal solution for industries where data protection and privacy are paramount, such as healthcare, finance, and education [51]. To address security topics such as authentication, authorization, privacy, confidentiality, and ownership, Saleh et al. [4] propose a blockchain certificate management framework using Hyperledger Fabric. Initiatives based on data privacy using Hyperledger Fabric can also be found in the research of Pulmano et al. [52], describing a prototype in the fields of academic credentials and national identification in the Philippines.

Among the articles included in the systematic review, two present pilot programs were implemented on EBSI. EBSI is a peer-to-peer network of distributed nodes across EU member states, plus Norway and Lichtenstein. There are 39 nodes in the network, distributed in the member states, each node keeping an identical copy of this ledger [53]. EBSI is a private blockchain and the used consensus is proof-of-authority. EBSI provides three core technical services: Application Programming Interface (APIs) to allow outside applications to connect, smart contracts to link the APIs and the ledger, and an immutable ledger to record the transactions [53].

In one article included in the systematic review, Tahlil et al. [39] present a prototype that was implemented on the Algorand blockchain. Algorand is an energy-efficient, quantum-secure, single-layer blockchain that offers high throughput and low fees.

The authors acknowledge that the systematic review included studies that focused on applications developed using only a few types of blockchain technology, as can be seen in Figure 5. Other blockchain types may be explored and included in a future article as novel innovations could offer new blockchain-based applications that were not covered in the current review.

It is no coincidence that three of these blockchain types appear frequently in articles that feature applications developed on blockchain, as these blockchain types were selected by researchers based on their widespread use and prominence in the global landscape.

4. Research Findings

This systematic review of 28 studies provides comprehensive answers to the three research questions by synthesizing the findings and insights from each study.

4.1. RQ1: Which Blockchain-Based Applications for Educational Purposes, Developed in or in Collaboration with Universities, Have Proven Effective, and Which Are Still at Various Stages of Development?

To answer the first research question, the analysis identifies and evaluates the blockchain platforms that have been presented in the selected papers, providing information on their stage of development, scope, and user adoption. Taking in consideration the level of development of the initiatives presented in the selected studies, they can be grouped into five major categories: production, pilot, prototype, framework, model. Among the applications that are already produced, some of them stand out as best practice in the world, being used globally by other universities or institutions.

4.1.1. Initiatives That Stand out as Best Practice in the World

Platforms used in education based on blockchain technology are transforming the way credentials are issued, stored and verified. These platforms take advantage of the decentralized, transparent, and secure nature of blockchain to address the longstanding challenges of credential fraud, inefficient verification processes, and limited control over personal academic records. As blockchain continues to gain popularity in the education sector, several platforms, as identified in [4,13,18,19,27,44], have emerged as leaders in this field:

Block.co was developed by the University of Nicosia with the aim of validating on the Bitcoin blockchain all its undergraduate degrees (bachelor, master and PhD) [4,13,18,19]. At the beginning, in 2015, the University of Nicosia handed diplomas, using blockchain, to students who completed the “Introduction to Digital Currencies” course, but since 2017 every student who graduates at this university receives diplomas on blockchain [54]. In [4], Saleh et al. describe the process by which the diplomas are issued, validated and verified at the University of Nicosia. After the diploma is issued in pdf format, it is digitally signed using the university’s private key, then a hash of the diploma is created using the SHA-256 algorithm and bundled into a pdf file, along with hashes of other graduates’ diplomas. A hash of this index file is created, which is embedded in a blockchain block. To verify the authenticity of a diploma, the hash of the index file is searched in the blockchain and after that, the hash of the diploma is searched in the index file. The advantage of using bundled diplomas, as mentioned by Caldarelli and Ellul [19], is mainly the reduction of storage space and, therefore, costs, considering that only the hash of the index file is added on blockchain, but this approach compromises privacy because students with the hash of certificates in one group will also see the hashes of the other certificates in that group [36]. To reduce the time taken in the verification and validity of certificates on the blockchain, in late 2021, Bloc.co started issuing NFT certificates [46], which by definition is a unique digital asset that represents the ownership or proof of authenticity of a certain item [55], such as a course certificate. This blockchain certification initiative of the University of Nicosia, Block.co, has been embraced by over 100 educational institutions and organizations worldwide [56].

Blockcerts was designed to issue and store certificates and diplomas by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab and further developed, on the Bitcoin blockchain, by Learning Machine, a software development company, and is now developed by Hyland Credentials [13]. At the beginning, in 2017, MIT issued digital certificates for 111 master’s graduates, in addition to the traditional hard diploma [24]. In [4,24], the process by which the diplomas are issued, validated and verified, using Blockcerts, is described. It starts with MIT issuing the diploma, in JSON format, sent by email to the graduate who downloads the Blockcerts wallet. When a graduate downloads the wallet, a public key and a private key are created. The student sends the public key to MIT to make a digital record of it, and MIT returns a hash to the student as verification of the authenticity of the diploma. Finally, MIT e-mails the digital diploma with the student’s public key inscribed into it. To verify the authenticity of a diploma, the student can prove ownership of the diploma using the private key from the wallet. Also, the authenticity of the diploma can be proved by checking the MIT verification portal by entering the certificate’s URL. An important feature is that Blockcerts was designed not to depend on the blockchain, so it can now work just as well on Ethereum or Hyperledger [13,43]. Another important feature is that Blockcerts was designed to work with any issuer. In [44], Vidal et al. mention that a disadvantage of Blockcerts is the process of revoking diplomas that may have been issued incorrectly. After creating Blockcerts, MIT, which is not actively involved in the ongoing development [57], and Machine Learning looked for partners to implement a pilot in the use of the Blockcerts platform in their universities. Among the first partners, since 2017, were Malta College for Arts Science and Technology [58], and University of Melbourne [18,27,59], to which were added in the following years other universities such as ECPI University in Virginia, USA, Maryville University, USA, [60] and many others.

4.1.2. Initiatives in Production

Despite the plethora of studies [2,3,41,61,62,63,64,65,66] experimenting with blockchain solutions since the advent of blockchain in education, most of them are not implemented in universities, but remain at the stage of experimental solutions.

In addition to the platforms that stand out as best practice in the world, only two initiatives from the selected papers have been implemented. CredChain is an application created by Ahmed et al. [22] for certificate verification. Ocheja et al. [47] present the SELI ecosystem which encompasses creative services, microsites, learning and content management systems, digital storytelling pedagogy, learning analytics, and blockchain support, and is being created with the support of the European Union, Latin America, and the Caribbean [67,68].

4.1.3. Pilots

According to Rizzo and Cantù [69], the term “pilot” refers to the process of testing and implementing a digital service in a real-world setting to assess its functionality, effectiveness, and potential challenges before full-scale deployment. It involves a trial phase where the service is introduced to a limited group of users or in a specific environment to gather feedback and refine the system.

Five blockchain-based pilots have been identified in the education sector, showcasing various applications of the technology in real-world use cases.

A pilot program by Capece et al. [24], which outlines the process of issuing diplomas to students using customized Blockcerts tools, highlights the increasing popularity and pivotal role of the Blockcerts application in credential management.

Two of these pilots [30,40], focus on the EBSI, which is designed to enable cross-border interoperability within the European Union (EU). EBSI facilitates the secure exchange of educational credentials across member states, ensuring that qualifications are recognized and verified in multiple countries. By using blockchain technology, these pilots aim to create a trusted, tamper-proof environment for sharing educational records, promoting transparency and ease of access for students and institutions alike. The use of EBSI highlights the potential of blockchain to streamline cross-border education processes and improve the mobility of students and professionals within the EU.

The other two pilots, [28,32], center on the use of the Qualichain platform, developed on the Ethereum blockchain, for managing educational credentials. Qualichain offers a decentralized solution for the issuance, storage, and verification of qualifications, allowing individuals to control their academic records while ensuring transparency and security. These case studies demonstrate how the Qualichain platform leverages Ethereum’s capabilities to address challenges in higher education, such as fraud prevention and data accessibility.

4.1.4. Prototypes

Six papers each present a prototype. The authors of the six papers present distinct approaches to developing their prototypes, selecting different blockchains, and addressing security in different ways, each offering unique methods tailored to specific needs and contexts.

Kistaubayev et al. [31] present the design and implementation of the UniverCert platform for higher education institutions and the analysis of transaction costs considering the number of students in all universities of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The UniverCert platform includes the following: web application, RestAPI layer, off-chain storage and blockchain storage. To address security issues, the authors chose to develop UniverCert on the Ethereum consortium, which is not public, and contains three types of participants, namely administrator (registers a higher education institution or Verifier in the platform and owns an off-chain database where transcripts are stored), user (higher education institutions that make transactions and actively use an off-chain database to store transcripts) and verifier (employers, recruiters and other educational institutions), as well as a smart contract called “Progress”, written in the Solidity programming language, which provides the interface between participants and the blockchain.

Heredia et al. [29] present the design and implementation of their prototype, used for diploma management and built on the SELI platform. Their prototype promotes the international exchange of certificates between universities.

Leka et al. [33] present BCert, a prototype that uses Ethereum blockchain and IPFS for issuing and managing academic certificates, pursuing a fast, safe and efficient process.

Tahlil et al. [39] present the design and implementation of their prototype developed on the Algorand blockchain, for the issuance and verification of certificates using smart contracts and NFTs.

Tariq et al. [41] developed Cerberus, a system that uses the Ethereum blockchain and QR codes to improve the issuance, verification, and revocation of university certificates and transcripts. Graduates’ records are encoded in a JSON format file, hashed with SHA-256, and broadcast on the Cerberus network via a signed transaction. Employers can verify degrees by scanning QR codes on physical certificates, which retrieve blockchain-stored information.

Vidal et al. [43] implemented their prototype, CertEdu, used for diploma management and built on the Blockcerts platform, on Bitcoin and Ethereum to evaluate the ability of the prototype to achieve the desired property of blockchain compatibility.

4.1.5. Frameworks

Four blockchain-based frameworks have been identified for issuing and verifying educational certificates. Three of these frameworks [23,25,42] use Ethereum. The fourth framework [4] takes a different approach by using Hyperledger, a permissioned blockchain, to provide a more controlled and scalable solution for certificate issuance and verification.

4.1.6. Conceptual Models

Four articles [26,34,35,37] presenting conceptual models were included in the systematic review. These conceptual models were included in this systematic review because of the comprehensive perspective they offer. These models provide a broader, more integrated understanding of the subject, allowing for the exploration of key factors such as system design, user interactions, and potential challenges within the context of academic credentialing.

The novelty of Delgado-von-Eitzen et al.’s vision in [26], which involves issuing an educational performance credential as an NFT signed with the issuer’s private key, led to its inclusion in the systematic review.

The comprehensive perspective seen in the model proposed by Litoussi et al. [34] is to streamline the management of all Moroccan students’ certificates by consolidating both academic and professional credentials into a single account per student. In Morocco’s existing centralized system, students often have multiple accounts created by different universities and internship providers, resulting in fragmented and disorganized records. The proposed model seeks to resolve this by integrating all certificates into one unified account, thus simplifying the process of managing and accessing a student’s complete academic and professional history, improving efficiency and reducing administrative complexity.

Nzaro et al. [35] have a different comprehensive approach. They identify a critical gap in blockchain applications for academic credential verification: the lack of services to validate the authenticity of the entire certification process, including admissions, examinations, and certification. Current blockchain solutions often focus only on verifying the final certificate, overlooking potential internal fraud, such as manipulation of records by institutional staff. To address this, the authors propose a model that uses smart contracts to monitor and enforce controls at each stage of the academic process. These smart contracts would verify the authenticity of student admissions, ensure fair and transparent examinations, and confirm the issuance of certificates only after all academic requirements are met, with each step securely recorded on the blockchain.

Rustemi et al. [37] envision a blockchain-based model for generating and verifying diplomas, aiming to integrate AI capabilities into key process steps. By incorporating AI, the model aims to improve the functionality of the system, enabling more accurate and automated verification, as well as streamlining the overall workflow.

4.2. RQ2: What Are the Main Focus Areas of Blockchain-Based Applications Developed for Diploma and Certificate Management?

4.2.1. Initiatives for Issuing, Managing and Verifying Academic Certificates or Transcripts

The central focus of 12 out of the 24 articles included in the review is the development of blockchain-based applications for issuing, managing, and verifying academic certificates or transcripts. The authors of [4,22,23] only offer solutions for verifying certificates.

To address the issue of diploma fraud, these articles propose leveraging blockchain technology to store educational credentials. By utilizing a blockchain system, the information becomes tamper-proof and decentralized [70], making it highly secure against manipulation or unauthorized changes.

4.2.2. Initiatives for Lifelong Academic and Professional Achievement Management

In today’s ever-evolving world, formal education such as a university degree, master’s program, or doctorate is no longer the endpoint of one’s learning journey. As industries and technologies rapidly advance, individuals are increasingly taking courses on their own initiative or in response to workplace demands, recognizing that staying current with emerging trends and skills is essential for career growth and personal development. Training programs, professional certifications, and specialized workshops are becoming necessary across various fields, offering a means to bridge gaps in knowledge and keep pace with innovation. This constant need for upskilling and reskilling fosters a culture of lifelong learning, where individuals continuously expand their expertise throughout their lives, ensuring they remain competitive, adaptable, and capable in a world of perpetual change. Given the growing importance of lifelong learning and the increasing number of micro-courses offered by various educational platforms, a critical aspect that platforms operating on blockchain technology must address is the registration and verification of diplomas and certificates earned through these courses [71].

Two initiatives offer different perspectives on lifelong academic and professional outcomes, but their proposed solutions align closely in addressing the core issues.

Litoussi et al. [34] propose for Morocco a decentralized model based on the Ethereum blockchain that integrates, for a person, all the certificates issued by universities, as well as certificates obtained in the workplace.

Kistaubayev et al. [31] point out that a platform must be developed to create a unified digital register of students’ educational achievements, considering that a student may follow different educational programs in different countries, also based on the Erasmus and DAAD programs; their system also allows for the earning of digital badges following microqualifications. Their proposed UniverCert system aims to securely store various digital certificates, including diplomas of education (such as bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degrees), academic transcripts detailing a student’s performance history, diploma supplements, and certificates of completion for MOOCs that include credit transfer [72]. This comprehensive digital repository aims to streamline the management, verification, and accessibility of these important academic credentials, providing students and institutions with a secure and efficient way to handle educational documentation.

4.2.3. Initiatives for Certificate Issuance and Verification That Facilitate Cross-Border Educational Mobility

In today’s interconnected world, it is increasingly common for students to pursue their studies across multiple universities, often through exchange programs like Erasmus, which allow them to spend part of their academic journey at an institution abroad. This international mobility presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly in terms of transferring academic credits, grades, and results between institutions with differing systems. Researchers are now focusing on creating solutions that bridge the gap between universities [30] by leveraging emerging technologies, particularly blockchain. By recording academic results and diplomas on the blockchain, they aim to create a universal, secure, and immutable system that can track and verify the credits and qualifications earned by students across different institutions and countries. Blockchain could facilitate the transfer of results between universities, eliminating bureaucratic hurdles and potential errors in credit transfer. Furthermore, it would allow students to build a comprehensive, verifiable academic profile that reflects their international studies, enhancing their qualifications for future employment or further education.

Three articles present applications focused on cross-border educational mobility. Tan et al. [40] conducted a study about the introduction of EBSI blockchain for the verification of educational credentials between a Belgian and an Italian university. The pilot case presents, for an imaginary student, the steps taken to issue, store and verify a student identity and a transcript of records between two universities, KU Leuven and Università di Bologna. Also on EBSI, Holotescu et al. [30] present the steps taken to issue, store and verify student credentials for an imaginary student who graduated with a bachelor’s degree at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, then completed a master’s degree at the University of Athens in Greece and then applied for a PhD at the University of Lille in France. The primary goal of the prototype developed on the SELI platform described by Heredia et al. [29] is to establish an international university network that facilitates the seamless exchange of certificates.

4.2.4. Initiatives for the Management of the Processes Involved in the Academic Journey

The diploma is often seen as the final product of completing a university cycle [61], but it represents the culmination of numerous steps and processes that occur throughout the academic journey. From the initial admission to taking exams, completing coursework, and defending a final thesis, each phase plays a critical role in earning a degree. These processes, which traditionally rely on institutional records, can be securely validated and tracked on the blockchain. With blockchain technology, the entire educational path, including every milestone, can be recorded in a tamper-proof and transparent manner [6], providing a reliable and verifiable record of academic achievement that extends beyond the diploma itself.

In the pilot conducted at the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens, Kontzinos et al. [32] shows that the QualiChain platform goes beyond simply accrediting students and educational institutions; it holds significant potential for large-scale optimization of the entire educational process at universities. By utilizing blockchain technology and data analytics, QualiChain can suggest efficient designs for educational programs, ensuring that they align with industry needs and the evolving demands of the labor market. The platform’s ability to track and validate academic achievements, combined with its decision-support tools, allows universities to optimize curricula, improve student learning outcomes, and better prepare graduates for their future careers.

In [35], Nzaro et al. from the Technical University of Mombasa, Kenya, highlight a key issue in the blockchain applications used for academic credential verification: many of these systems do not have a dedicated service for validating the authenticity of the certification process itself. While these platforms often focus on verifying the final certificate and ensuring its integrity, they typically overlook critical stages of the academic journey, such as admissions, examinations, and the entire certification process. This leaves significant gaps in addressing potential fraud, particularly internal fraud, which can occur within legitimate institutions where employees or administrators might manipulate records or certificates for personal gain. Current solutions tend to operate under the assumption that certificates issued by recognized universities are always genuine, thus failing to tackle the more complex issue of internal fraud. To prevent and detect such fraudulent activities, it is necessary to monitor the entire learning and certification process, not just the final product. The student’s learning journey can be broken down into three key phases: admission controls, where the authenticity of the student’s application and entry credentials are verified; examination controls, which ensure that assessments are conducted fairly, transparently, and according to established academic standards throughout the program; and finally, the issuance of an authentic certificate, where the final qualification is issued and recorded. In the model proposed by Nzaro et al., these controls of each stage are enforced through the use of smart contracts on the blockchain. Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement written directly into code that can automatically check and enforce rules at each stage of the certification process. Nzaro et al. propose the use of smart contracts during the admissions process to verify the authenticity of previous qualifications and prevent fraudulent applications from being submitted. They also propose the use of smart contracts during examinations, to ensure that the assessments are carried out according to predefined academic standards, preventing any manipulation of the results. Finally, the researchers proposed smart contracts for the certificate-issuing stage, to ensure that the final degree is only issued after confirmation that all academic requirements have been met, with the details securely recorded on the blockchain for future verification.

4.3. RQ3: What Are the Key Challenges in Integrating Blockchain Technology into Education and How Can They Be Addressed to Improve the Management of Degrees and Certificates?

4.3.1. Deficiency in Standardization and Interoperability Among Blockchain Systems

A significant challenge in the adoption of blockchain technology in education is the deficiency in standardization and interoperability among blockchain systems [73]. While blockchain offers promising benefits for secure credential management and academic record storage, the absence of universal standards makes it difficult to integrate blockchain solutions across diverse educational systems, leading to fragmented and siloed implementations. For example, a student’s academic credentials stored on one institution’s blockchain may not be easily accessible or verifiable by another institution using a different blockchain system. This creates barriers to the seamless sharing of academic records, credit transfers, and credential verification on a global scale.

To unlock blockchain’s full potential in education, addressing the standardization and interoperability gaps is crucial, enabling a more cohesive and efficient way to manage academic information across institutions. In [28], Guerreiro et al. emphasize the importance of European pilots, projects, and initiatives adopting a collaborative approach. The need for increased cooperation and knowledge sharing is highlighted, not only on research findings, but also on user bases, use cases and reuse of components from previous or ongoing projects [28].

Even the need for standardization and interoperability between blockchain systems is a significant challenge in the digital certification space; solutions like Blockcerts offer promising ways forward. Blockcerts was specifically designed not to depend on any single blockchain and to work with any issuer [13,43,44]. By focusing on both flexibility and compatibility, Blockcerts offers a solution that promotes standardization while ensuring the broad applicability of digital certification systems. SELI and BOLL platforms are both designed with interoperability at their core [47], aiming to seamlessly connect educational systems across various institutions. The BOLL system utilizes blockchain technology to link students’ educational records from multiple educational institutions. Similarly, the SELI platform supports interoperability by allowing partner institutions to set up local instances of the platform while maintaining a connection to the global network. This approach enables efficient collaboration between educational organizations, fostering a more integrated educational ecosystem.

Initiatives like the one proposed by Litoussi et al. [34], which suggests a unique blockchain-based decentralized model for issuing digital certificates across all Moroccan universities and companies, could help resolve the challenges of standardization and interoperability in blockchain systems. By adopting a single, cohesive blockchain framework for certificate issuance, this model would ensure compatibility between institutions and organizations, allowing for seamless verification and transfer of credentials. This unified approach could address existing gaps, promoting greater efficiency and trust in the management of academic and professional certifications.

Vidal et al. [43] implemented their CertEdu prototype on Bitcoin and Ethereum to assess its ability to achieve blockchain compatibility, representing a significant step forward in addressing the challenges of standardization and interoperability between blockchain systems. By testing their prototype on two widely used blockchain platforms, they aimed to evaluate how well the system could operate across different blockchain environments, providing valuable insights into the feasibility of creating a more universally compatible and standardized solution for digital certification. This research could pave the way for developing more interoperable blockchain systems, enhancing the seamless exchange of credentials across diverse platforms.

4.3.2. Scalability Difficulties

Scalability presents a significant challenge [74] in the education sector, especially when considering the need to validate a wide range of processes—such as admissions, grades, diplomas, and micro-credentials [35]—on the blockchain. As the blockchain network expands to handle an increasing number of students, institutions, and transactions, the time required to process each transaction can grow considerably, leading to delays in validating academic records or issuing credentials. Additionally, the storage demands on the blockchain also rise, as the network needs to store an ever-growing volume of data, including transcripts, diplomas, and micro-credentials, for potentially millions of students. This can lead to higher operational costs and inefficiencies.

To overcome these challenges, various solutions are being explored, such as sharding [75,76], off-chain storage [77] and more efficient consensus mechanisms [75], to improve the speed, storage efficiency, and overall scalability of blockchain networks without compromising their security or decentralization.

Sharding in blockchain is a technique that improves scalability and performance by dividing the blockchain into smaller, more manageable segments called shards. Each shard handles a subset of transactions, allowing for parallel processing, which boosts transaction throughput and prevents network overload [77]. This approach helps distribute the computational and storage workload across the network, reducing bottlenecks and enhancing overall efficiency. As blockchain adoption increases, sharding ensures the network can handle a higher volume of transactions, maintaining responsiveness and scalability.

Off-chain storage, like IPFS, has been discussed in most publications [22,23,25,31,33,34,43]. IPFS is a decentralized, peer-to-peer file system designed to efficiently store and share data across a distributed network of computers. Unlike traditional file storage methods that rely on central servers, IPFS uses content-addressed storage, where each file is assigned a unique cryptographic hash that acts as its identifier. This means that files are not stored in specific locations but can be retrieved from any node in the network that holds a copy, ensuring greater redundancy, faster access, and a more resilient system [77].

Regarding consensus mechanisms, platforms such as Solana and Cardano could offer viable solutions. Cardano, known for its emphasis on sustainability, scalability, and interoperability [78], presents an attractive option for institutions looking to handle large volumes of academic data without sacrificing security or decentralization. Its focus on efficient consensus mechanisms and a layered architecture enables it to manage increasing transaction loads while maintaining low energy consumption, which is crucial for the long-term viability of blockchain applications in education. On the other hand, Solana is one of the fastest blockchain platforms [78], capable of processing thousands of transactions per second at minimal costs. This makes Solana particularly appealing for universities or education systems with a high number of students and graduates, where rapid and cost-effective transaction validation is essential. With both platforms offering advanced scalability and lower transaction costs compared to traditional blockchain networks, they hold significant potential for future research in solving the operational and financial challenges of implementing blockchain in education.

4.3.3. Concerns Around Data Privacy and Security

Concerns around data privacy and security arise, especially when it comes to compliance with regulations like GDPR, which mandate strict control over personal data.

Blockchain’s immutability ensures that once data is written to the ledger, it cannot be altered or deleted, which is a key feature that ensures the integrity and trustworthiness of the data. However, this poses a conflict with privacy laws that require individuals to have the right to erase their personal data upon request [79]. In the education sector, this could complicate the removal of student records or academic certificates that are erroneously issued or need to be updated due to changes in legal status. One study by Vidal et al. [43] on the application of blockchain in education sought to alleviate this problem by proposing a system that would secure academic certificates while allowing the revocation of improperly awarded certificates.

The EU has raised concerns that blockchain technology may threaten individuals’ data ownership rights, particularly in light of GDPR. GDPR is a regulation of the European Parliament regarding the protection of personal data in the European Union and the European Economic Area and the regulation of the flow of personal data. One of the core assumptions of GDPR is that data can be modified or erased when necessary to comply with legal requirements [80]. However, this assumption conflicts with blockchain’s immutability, as data on a blockchain cannot be altered or deleted to maintain its integrity and trustworthiness. This fundamental contradiction creates significant challenges in determining blockchain’s compliance with GDPR, particularly in regards to whether data stored on public blockchains should be classified as sensitive personal data. If the data is deemed personal, GDPR provisions would require adherence, but the inability to modify or erase such data contradicts GDPR’s stipulations. Moreover, questions arise about whether blockchain data can be properly anonymized to meet GDPR’s privacy standards, adding another layer of complexity to the legal and technical challenges of aligning blockchain with data protection laws. One study by Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. [26] proposed a model for issuing and verifying academic credentials using NFTs powered by blockchain technology. In addition to other studies [39,81,82] introducing NFTs into education, the solution of Delgado-von-Eitzen et al. comes with GDPR [79] compliance.

To preserve data integrity while ensuring privacy, one approach is to store a hash of the data on the blockchain, while keeping the actual personal data off-chain. This hybrid solution used by [22,23,28,31,34,43] leverages the blockchain’s immutability for verification and transparency, while off-chain storage helps mitigate privacy concerns by not exposing personal information directly on the public ledger.

To address security issues, one solution proposed by researchers is to develop applications on permissioned blockchains, where data access is more restricted and controlled, such as the one proposed by Saleh et al. [4] on Hyperledger Fabric or the one proposed by Kistaubayev et al. [31] on the Ethereum consortium.

4.3.4. Concerns Around Costs

In addition to the initial implementation costs, blockchain technology also entails ongoing transaction and computation costs, which can become significant as the volume of data and network activity grows. Transaction costs, typically in the form of fees paid to miners or validators, are necessary to ensure that data is securely processed and added to the blockchain. These fees can rise as more users engage with the network, especially during times of high demand, which increases competition for transaction space. Moreover, the computational resources required for validating transactions, especially in networks that use energy-intensive consensus mechanisms like Proof of Work, can lead to high operational costs. As the blockchain scales to accommodate larger datasets, such as in the case of storing extensive records or executing complex smart contracts, these computation costs grow correspondingly. This means that maintaining and expanding blockchain systems to handle increasing amounts of data can be costly, and without efficient scaling solutions, these expenses could hinder the widespread adoption of blockchain technology for large-scale applications.

While many studies focus on the potential benefits, few provide a detailed breakdown of the financial implications, particularly when scaling solutions to manage comprehensive systems like admissions, grades, diplomas, and microcredits. For widespread adoption to take place, these costs must be thoroughly debated and compared to the expenses associated with traditional educational systems. Such an analysis is crucial not only for universities but also for policymakers and stakeholders who need to understand the financial viability of transitioning to blockchain-based solutions. This would involve evaluating the total cost of ownership, including infrastructure, transaction fees, and long-term maintenance, in order to assess whether blockchain can provide a more cost-effective solution than conventional methods. In this context, several studies have attempted to quantify these costs. For instance, Alkhawi and Alshameri, in [23], and Ahmed et al., in [22], provide an analysis of the costs associated with implementing their application on the Ethereum network. Their focus is on the costs of deploying smart contracts and the transaction fees for certificate hash transactions, offering a glimpse into the financial aspects of using blockchain for credential management. Similarly, Kistaubayev et al. [31] offer a detailed analysis of the cost implications of using a blockchain-based prototype within the higher education system of Kazakhstan, specifically looking at the gas fees associated with running the system. These studies contribute valuable insights, but they also highlight the need for further research to understand the broader economic impact of blockchain adoption across diverse educational settings and at larger scales.

5. Discussion

Although the process of issuing, verifying, and revoking diplomas on blockchain differs slightly throughout the studies analyzed, several common aspects emerge that highlight the benefits of using blockchain for issuing and verifying diplomas over traditional methods. Key similarities include the enhanced security and immutability offered by blockchain, which significantly reduces the risk of diploma fraud and tampering. Unlike traditional paper-based or centralized digital systems, blockchain ensures that once a diploma is issued, it cannot be altered or forged, providing a permanent, verifiable record. Additionally, blockchain-based systems allow for faster and more efficient verification of credentials, enabling employers and institutions to verify graduates’ qualifications in real time without needing to contact multiple third parties. Another common benefit identified is the transparency and accessibility that blockchain provides. With a decentralized network, both the issuer and the recipient have access to the diploma’s full history, ensuring that any updates or changes to the record are clearly visible. This addresses issues related to lost or misplaced diplomas, as blockchain provides a secure digital record that can be accessed anytime and from anywhere. Moreover, blockchain technology enables a more streamlined, automated process for issuing diplomas, cutting down on administrative work and reducing the risk of human error. These shared advantages, as outlined in

Table 8. Overview of the process of issuing diplomas.

Activities	Description of the Activities	Traditional Method	Blockchain Application
Verification of academic requirements, final assessment and administrative audits	Once a student completes their program, the administrative office reviews their academic record, confirming course completion, grades, thesis approval, and fulfillment of all academic and administrative requirements, including any outstanding obligations.	Because grades are manually reviewed by administrative staff, there is the possibility of human error in the process, leading to inaccuracies or discrepancies.	Blockchain technology could create an immutable diploma supplement for each student that highlights the skills, grades, and credits earned for each subject. This would reduce the workload for universities to verify student credentials and eliminate the possibility of issuing a fake diploma if subjects were not completed with passing grades.
Issuance of the Diploma	Once eligibility is confirmed, the diploma is issued with details such as the university name, graduate’s name, degree title, and signatures.	The risks of counterfeit diplomas may arise if all academic requirements are not properly met.	The university generates a digital diploma and a transaction involving the diploma’s hash is created and sent to a node via the wallet, where it must be signed with the user’s private key before being broadcast to the blockchain for validation and recording in a secure way.
Distribution of the diploma	Once the diplomas are finalized, graduates are required to collect their diploma and diploma supplement.	Diplomas require time to be finalized, after which the graduate must personally collect both the diploma and the diploma supplement. If the diploma is lost, a fee is charged for issuing a replacement.	The diploma is already in the graduate’s wallet.
Registration and Archiving	The university records the diploma issuance in its official registers, ensuring a permanent record of the student’s academic accomplishment.	The diploma is stored in a local database, and security problems can arise if unauthorized access occurs.	The diploma resides in a secure relational database such as IPFS, and in the blockchain network node an immutable transaction with the diploma’s hash is recorded.
Verification	The information on the diploma is checked for accuracy.	Employers must contact universities for verification, which can be time-consuming.	A dedicated verification platform offers an easy-to-use interface for employers, institutions, and individuals to verify diploma authenticity in real time.

, make blockchain an increasingly appealing solution for diploma management, offering a more reliable, secure, and efficient alternative to traditional methods.

Selecting the right blockchain platform for use in education depends on the specific needs and priorities of each institution. By understanding the strengths and limitations of each blockchain technology, educators and institutions can make informed decisions, ensuring that the platform they choose effectively supports their management needs and aligns with their goals of efficiency, security, and sustainability.

Table 9. Comparative analysis of blockchain platforms’ performance metrics.

Solution	Blockchain Platform	Consensus Mechanism	Throughput	Block Creation Time	Average Cost per Transaction in 2024	Scalability	Sustainability
Blockcerts Block.co	Bitcoin	PoW	7 tps	10 min	USD 6.96	Low	Low
DIAR CertEdu QualiChain BCSC-Dapp Cerberus BCert QualiChain Solution in [23,25,26,35,38,42]	Ethereum	CPoS	>20 tps	15 s	USD 2.50	Moderate	Moderate
UniverCert SELI	Ethereum consortium	PoA	>100 tps	not specified	not specified	Moderate	Moderate
Solution in [4]	Hyperledger Fabric	PBFT	>2000 tps	not specified	-	High	High
Solution in [30,40]	EBSI	PoA	not specified	8 s	-	High	High
AlgoCert	Algorand	PPoS	>1000 tps	4.5 s	USD 0.21	High	High

provides a comparative analysis of blockchain platforms’ performance metrics, evaluating the effectiveness of blockchain types used in the solutions from the articles selected for this review.

Based on the analysis results, we conclude the following:

• Platforms like Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Hyperledger Fabric each offer unique functionalities for decentralized applications. Bitcoin, with its proof-of-work consensus mechanism, provides security, but struggles with scalability and high transaction costs. Ethereum supports robust smart contracts, but faces transaction cost challenges if the network is congested or if the transactions involve complex contracts or large amounts of data. Hyperledger Fabric offers high privacy and control in permissioned environments. In contrast, Algorand excels in scalability and transaction speed, making it ideal for institutions handling large transaction volumes or requiring cost-efficient operations.
• The consensus mechanism of a blockchain platform, as highlighted in [83], is crucial for security as it determines transaction validation and impacts resistance to attacks.
• The transaction per second (TPS) rate of a blockchain is directly influenced by its consensus mechanism. Although blockchains’ throughput is relatively lower than centralized storage systems that can process up to 50,000 transactions per second [84], in education, greater security may be valued more than high transaction speed.
• Transaction fees are influenced by network congestion, transaction complexity, and blockchain capacity [38,85]. Higher congestion leads to increased fees as users compete for faster processing, while complex transactions require more computational power, raising fees. Additionally, limited block size means fewer transactions can be processed per block, further driving up fees when demand is high.
• In terms of sustainability, while proof-of-work consumes significant resources and raises environmental concerns, proof-of-stake or proof-of-authority offers a more energy-efficient and sustainable alternative.

The publication trend reveals a rising global interest in applying blockchain technology in education. However, the relatively limited number of studies and the fact that most articles in this review focus on certificate issuance and verification highlight the need for further research, as education extends far beyond simply obtaining a university diploma or earning a microcredential. It is also about the knowledge and skills we gain through interaction, collaboration, and the exchange of information with others. One critical aspect that should not be overlooked in the development of blockchain applications is the role of educational resources [86,87]. In any field of study, whether in academia or a specialized discipline like medicine, the materials that form the foundation of learning—such as books, course materials, and documented case studies—are indispensable. These resources, created by experts and educators, provide real-world examples that significantly contribute to a learner’s understanding. In fields like medicine, for instance, learning from documented cases of another doctor is crucial for advancing knowledge and practice. Therefore, it is essential that these educational resources can be transmitted securely and efficiently, while also safeguarding copyright and ensuring proper remuneration for the creators. Blockchain technology has the potential to provide a secure system for the distribution and use of these resources, ensuring that intellectual property rights are respected and creators are fairly compensated for their contributions.

While blockchain can provide guarantees regarding the authenticity of a diploma and even track the entire process leading to its issuance, the quality of information in the learning process depends on teachers. As such, more research is needed to explore how blockchain can be integrated with education to create a comprehensive lifelong learning portfolio that not only tracks formal qualifications but also values the continuous educational journey and the contributions of educators throughout a person’s education.

6. Areas for Future Research

Future research in the use of blockchain technology in education should explore the exchange of educational resources between teachers, while ensuring copyright protection. This opens up significant opportunities for the development of a blockchain-based application to effectively manage these resources. One promising area for development is the use of smart contracts to automate copyright enforcement and ensure fair compensation for teachers when their content is used or distributed. Furthermore, future studies should examine the scalability of these solutions to accommodate a diverse range of educational institutions, from small schools to large universities, and address challenges related to global adoption, such as varying copyright laws and technological infrastructure. Another important aspect to consider is the user experience, ensuring that these blockchain applications are accessible and intuitive for educators, regardless of their technical expertise. Ultimately, the integration of these applications with existing systems that track a teacher’s academic credentials, such as diplomas and certifications, could lead to the creation of a comprehensive academic portfolio. Such a system would provide a verifiable record of a teacher’s contributions, achievements, and professional development throughout their career.

Another important area for future research could focus on the potential of combining blockchain with AI in improving the personalization of training programs, where learners can access tailored learning paths based on their past training records and performance. By integrating blockchain’s record-keeping with AI’s ability to analyze and interpret large data sets, it would be possible to create highly personalized learning experiences.

7. Limitations and Threats to Validity

Every research study is subject to various limitations. In conducting this systematic review, several limitations and potential threats to validity must be considered:

• Selection of Databases: This systematic review was performed on the following databases: ResearchGate, MDPI, ScienceDirect, and IEEE Xplore. The choice of these databases and search strategies may introduce selection bias, as other databases may provide varied coverage of the literature, especially in emerging fields such as blockchain. To mitigate this risk, widely recognized scientific databases were utilized during the research process to expand the number of papers included in the review.
• Publication Bias: The selection of articles was restricted to those published in journals and conference proceedings, which may have excluded studies published in other formats such as reports, brief articles, or non-peer-reviewed sources, but these papers typically present works in progress or preliminary studies that are considered to have limited relevance to the field.
• Language Restriction: Limiting the review to articles published in English presents a potential language bias. Studies published in other languages may contain valuable information but were excluded, which could affect the comprehensiveness of the findings and the generalizability of the conclusions. However, most researchers publish important results in English.
• Scope of Blockchain Applications in Education: By focusing on the use of blockchain technology specifically within the context of education, the review may have excluded broader studies on blockchain’s applications in other sectors, limiting the breadth of insights into its potential or current impact. This narrowing of scope, while increasing the relevance to the topic, may also overlook cross-disciplinary innovations that could influence educational applications.
• Time Frame Restriction: The filtering criterion of articles published between 2020 and 2024 may have led to the exclusion of earlier foundational research that could provide important context or historical perspectives on the use of blockchain in education. Conversely, this restriction may have helped focus the review on the most recent trends and technological advancements but potentially at the cost of overlooking long-term trends.

8. Conclusions

In this systematic review, we were able to identify the increased interest in blockchain in higher education institutions. Progress in the use of blockchain in universities is continuous and there is a growing number of initiatives worldwide, even if they are predominantly models, pilots or prototypes. Despite the growing number of studies exploring blockchain solutions, many of these remain at the experimental stage rather than being implemented in universities. As a result, they have yet to effectively address the issue of counterfeit diplomas. While these studies demonstrate the potential of blockchain technology for credential verification, their lack of real-world application in academic institutions limits their ability to provide a tangible solution to the widespread problem of fake diplomas. Without widespread adoption and practical implementation, these experimental solutions fail to make a significant impact in combating diploma fraud.

We explored various initiatives by universities that have adopted blockchain technology for certificate management or are just doing research in the field, revealing that these efforts are often siloed and operate independently from one another. This lack of integration creates significant challenges in linking individuals with blockchain-issued degrees to human resources departments in companies, making it difficult for employers to seamlessly verify academic qualifications. However, despite these challenges, blockchain technology offers the necessary resources to address a critical issue: providing verifiable evidence of lifelong education for each individual.