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Exposure to Particulate Matter (PM) During Pregnancy and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas in Children
by
, , , , , ,
Gema Monteagudo
1,
Lidia Pérez Ormita
2,
Mònica Guxens
3,4,5,6,7,
Adela Cañete
8,
Elena Pardo Romaguera
8,
Diana Gómez-Barroso
6,9,
María Alonso-Colón
1,9,
Beatriz Núñez-Corcuera
10,
Juan Antonio Ortega García
11,12,13 and
Rebeca Ramis
6,9,*
1
UNED-ENS Mixed Research Institute (IMIENS), 28029 Madrid, Spain
2
Rey Juan Carlos University Hospital, 28933 Móstoles, Spain
3
IS-Global, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
4
ICREA, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
5
Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08005 Barcelona, Spain
6
Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology & Public Health (CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública-CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
7
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 2060, 3000 CD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
8
Spanish Registry of Childhood Tumours (RETI-SEHOP), University of Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain
9
National Center for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28029 Madrid, Spain
10
National Center for Environmental Health, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Carlos III Institute of Health), 28220 Madrid, Spain
11
Pediatric Environmental Health Speciality Unit (Pehsu), Hospital University Virgen Arrixaca, 30120 Murcia, Spain
12
IMIB PascualParrilla, 30120 Murcia, Spain
13
University of Murcia, 30003 Murcia, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Cancers 2026, 18(17), 2746; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers18172746
Submission received: 17 July 2026
/
Revised: 19 August 2026
/
Accepted: 21 August 2026
/
Published: 24 August 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention)
Simple Summary
Lymphomas are the third most frequent tumors in children under 15 years old, with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) comprising around 7% of childhood cancers. Lymphomas have few known risk factors, such as infectious agents, immune disorders, and environmental exposure to pollutant agents. This paper aims to better understand childhood lymphomas’ etiopathogenesis by analyzing the effect of prenatal particulate matter exposure on the incidence of NHL in children. We conducted a population-based case-control study with data from Spain from 2009 to 2016. We estimated the concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 for the entire pregnancy by a spatiotemporal random-forest model. Logistic regressions were modeled, and odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) calculated. Our findings suggest a potential association between exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy and the risk of developing NHL in children.
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Lymphomas are the third most common pediatric malignancy, with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) comprising around 7% of childhood cancers. Environmental exposures have been linked to its etiology. Particulate matter (PM) prenatal exposure is increasingly scrutinized for potential effects on early-life carcinogenesis. We investigated whether exposure during pregnancy to PM2.5 and PM10 was associated with childhood NHL incidence. Methods: A population-based case–control study was conducted in Spain (2009–2016), including 3,682,038 children < 15 years. Incident NHL cases (n = 289) were identified through the Spanish Childhood Tumor Registry. Prenatal PM2.5 and PM10 exposures were estimated using a random forest model. Logistic regression estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Exposures were modeled continuously and categorically by tertiles (low, medium, or high exposure) to assess nonlinearity; trimester-specific analyses were also explored. Results: In the analysis with the continuous exposure, higher prenatal PM2.5 was associated with increased odds of NHL, and PM10 showed smaller associations. With categorical variables, medium and high-level exposure to PM2.5 showed an association with higher NHL incidence, especially in the third trimester. High-level exposure to PM10 during the first and second trimesters was linked to a higher NHL incidence in children under five years. Conclusions: Maternal PM2.5 and PM10 exposure during pregnancy could be associated with childhood NHL incidence, with stronger associations among children diagnosed before age 5. These findings warrant replication and mechanistic investigation.
Keywords:
PM2.5; PM10; environmental exposure; childhood cancer; non-Hodgkin lymphoma; incidence; epidemiology
