The Vermiform Appendix and Its Pathologies
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The Vermiform Appendix—Anatomy and Embryology
3. Inflammatory Pathologies of the Vermiform Appendix
4. Pathologies Related to Congenital Anomalies of the Appendix and Other Related Diseases
5. Tumors of the Appendix
5.1. Hyperplastic Polyps, Sessile Serrated Lesions without Dysplasia, and Serrated Lesions with Dysplasia
5.2. Appendiceal Mucinous Neoplasms
5.3. Appendiceal Adenocarcinomas NOS and Undifferentiated Carcinomas NOS
5.4. Appendiceal Goblet Cell Adenocarcinoma
5.5. Appendiceal Neuroendocrine Neoplasms
5.6. Therapeutic Approaches for Appendiceal Cancers
Tumor Type | Therapeutic Approaches |
---|---|
Mucinous neoplasms, grade 1 | Appendectomy [34] |
Mucinous neoplasms, grades 2, 3 | Appendectomy + right hemicolectomy + perioperative systemic chemotherapy [137,141,142] |
Pseudomyxoma peritonei | Cytoreductive surgery + hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy [138] |
Pseudomyxoma peritonei, grades 2, 3 | Cytoreductive surgery + hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy [138] + perioperative systemic chemotherapy [139,140,142] |
Mucinous adenocarcinoma | Right hemicolectomy [143] Chemotherapy [144] Cytoreductive surgery + hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy [145] |
Goblet cell adenocarcinomas without carcinomatosis | Right hemicolectomy [146] |
Goblet cell adenocarcinomas with carcinomatosis | Cytoreductive surgery + hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy [147] |
Goblet cell adenocarcinomas, stages III, IV | Cytoreductive surgery + adjuvant chemotherapy [148] |
Nonmucinous appendiceal adenocarcinomas/signet ring adenocarcinomas without metastases | Right hemicolectomy [149] |
Nonmucinous appendiceal adenocarcinomas/signet ring adenocarcinomas with metastases | Right hemicolectomy [149] + standard systemic chemotherapy (fluorouracil, platinum, and irinotecan [153]) + cytoreductive surgery/hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy [150,151,152] |
Localized nonmucinous appendiceal adenocarcinomas/signet ring adenocarcinomas without node involvement | Right hemicolectomy [149] + adjuvant chemotherapy (fluoropyrimidine/oxaliplatin) [153] |
Neuroendocrine neoplasms < 2 cm | Appendectomy [155] |
Neuroendocrine neoplasms > 2 cm | Right hemicolectomy [155] |
Resecable metastatic neuroendocrine neoplasms | Cytoreductive surgery [155,157] |
Non-resectable metastatic neuroendocrine neoplasms | Bland hepatic artery embolization + intra-arterial chemoembolization with cisplatin or doxorubicin + and 90Y-radioembolization [158] Somatostatin analogue therapies: octreotide (PROMID phase III study)/lanreotide (în CLARINET phase III study) [159] Everolimus (mTOR inhibitor)/Sunitinib (VEGFRs 1–3 inhibitors), and surufatinib (angiogenesis inhibitor) [155] FOLFOX (folinic acid, fluorouracil and oxaliplatin)/XELOX/CAPOX (capecitabine and oxaliplatin) [160,161] CAPTEM (capecitabin and temozolomide) [162] FOLFOX or XELOX/CAPOX + bevacizumab [163,164] |
6. Other Diagnoses Associated with the Vermiform Appendix
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
9. Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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T Category | T Criteria |
---|---|
TX | Primary tumor cannot be assessed |
T0 | No evidence of primary tumor |
Tis | Carcinoma in situ (intramucosal carcinoma; invasion of the lamina propria or extension into but not through the muscularis mucosae) |
Tis (LAMN) | Low-grade appendiceal mucinous neoplasm confined by the muscularis propria. Acellular mucin or mucinous epithelium may invade the muscularis propria. T1 and T2 are not applicable to LAMN. Acellular mucin or mucinous epithelium that extends into the subserosa or serosa should be classified as T3 or T4a, respectively. |
T1 | Tumor invades the submucosa (through the muscularis mucosa but not into the muscularis propria) |
T2 | Tumor invades the muscularis propria |
T3 | Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into the subserosa or the mesoappendix |
T4 | Tumor invades the visceral peritoneum, including the acellular mucin or mucinous epithelium involving the serosa of the appendix or mesoappendix, and/or directly invades adjacent organs or structures |
T4a | Tumor invades through the visceral peritoneum, including the acellular mucin or mucinous epithelium involving the serosa of the appendix or serosa of the mesoappendix |
T4b | Tumor directly invades or adheres to adjacent organs or structures |
N Category | N Criteria |
---|---|
NX | Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed |
N0 | No regional lymph node metastasis |
N1 | One to three regional lymph nodes are positive (tumor in lymph node measuring ≥ 0.2 mm), or any number of tumor deposits is present, and all identifiable lymph nodes are negative |
N1a | One regional lymph node is positive |
N1b | Two or three regional lymph nodes are positive |
N1c | No regional lymph nodes are positive, but there are tumor deposits in the subserosa or mesentery |
N2 | Four or more regional lymph nodes are positive |
M Category | M Criteria |
---|---|
M0 | No distant metastasis |
M1 | Distant metastasis |
M1a | Intraperitoneal acellular mucin, without identifiable tumor cells in the disseminated peritoneal mucinous deposits |
M1b | Intraperitoneal metastasis only, including peritoneal mucinous deposits containing tumor cells |
M1c | Metastasis to sites other than the peritoneum |
G | G Definition |
---|---|
GX | Grade cannot be assessed |
G1 | Well-differentiated |
G2 | Moderately differentiated |
G3 | Poorly differentiated |
TNM | Grade | Stage Group |
---|---|---|
Tis N0 M0 | - | 0 |
Tis(LAMN) N0 M0 | - | 0 |
T1 N0 M0 | - | I |
T2 N0 M0 | - | I |
T3 N0 M0 | - | IIA |
T4a N0 M0 | - | IIB |
T4b N0 M0 | - | IIC |
T1 N1 M0 | - | IIIA |
T2 N1 M0 | - | IIIA |
T3 N1 M0 | - | IIIB |
T4 N1 M0 | - | IIIB |
T(any) N2 M0 | - | IIIC |
T(any) N(any) M1a | - | IVA |
T(any) N(any) M1b | G1 | IVA |
T(any) N(any) M1b | G2, G3, or GX | IVB |
T(any) N(any) M1c | Any G | IVC |
T Category | T Criteria |
---|---|
TX | Primary tumor cannot be assessed |
T0 | No evidence of primary tumor |
T1 | Tumor 2 cm or less in greatest dimension |
T2 | Tumor more than 2 cm but less than or equal to 4 cm |
T3 | Tumor more than 4 cm or with subserosal invasion or involvement of the mesoappendix |
T4 | Tumor perforates the peritoneum or directly invades other adjacent organs or structures (excluding direct mural extension to adjacent subserosa of adjacent bowel), e.g., abdominal wall and skeletal muscle |
N Category | N Criteria |
---|---|
NX | Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed |
N0 | No regional lymph node metastasis |
N1 | Regional lymph node metastasis |
M Category | M Criteria |
---|---|
M0 | No distant metastasis |
M1 | Distant metastasis |
M1a | Metastasis confined to liver |
M1b | Metastases in at least one extrahepatic site (e.g., lung, ovary, nonregional lymph node, peritoneum, bone) |
M1c | Both hepatic and extrahepatic metastases |
TNM | Stage Group |
---|---|
T(X, 0) N(X, 0, 1) M1 | IV |
T1 N0 M0 | I |
T1 N1 M0 | III |
T1 N(X, 0, 1) M1 | IV |
T2 N0 M0 | II |
T2 N1 M0 | III |
T2 N(X, 0, 1) M1 | IV |
T3 N0 M0 | II |
T3 N1 M0 | III |
T3 N(X, 0, 1) M1 | IV |
T4 N0 M0 | III |
T4 N1 M0 | III |
T4 N(X, 0, 1) M1 | IV |
Therapy | Recurrence Rate | Benefits | Limitations/Complications |
---|---|---|---|
Surgical resection (open appendectomy) | None [119] | Effectiveness and safety in preventing occurrence [119] | Limitations: - Complications: postoperative bleeding, wound infection, intra-abdominal abscess, and paralytic ileus, with a rate of 11.1% [120,121] |
Surgical resection (laparoscopic appendectomy) | None [119] | Effectiveness and safety in preventing occurrence [119] | Limitations: - Complications: postoperative bleeding, wound infection, intra-abdominal abscess, and paralytic ileus, with a rate of 8.7% [120,121] |
Antibiotic administration | High [122] 5% during the one-year follow-up period [123] 2–14% for initial antibiotic treatment, during follow-up [124] 28.6% % after an average of 4.3 years of follow-up, especially when appendicoliths are present [125] 34.0% at 2 years, 35.2% at 3 years, 37.1% at 4 years, and 39.1% at 5 years [126] | Avoiding surgical approach in most cases [122,123,126,127] Less pain, less analgesia [122] Low hospitalization rate [127] Effectiveness in about 60% of cases of simple appendicitis [123] | Limitations: applies only to uncomplicated cases [128] Complications: perforation and pelvic sepsis [126], occurring in 8.1 per 100 participants, being higher for those with appendicoliths (20.2 per 100 participants) compared to those with no appendicoliths (3.7 per 100 participants) [127] Some cases (29%) need appendectomy after 90 days [127] |
Endoscopic retrograde appendicitis therapy | 2.86% during the first six months of postoperative follow-up [129] 5 to 6.2% [130] | Nonoperative and minimally invasive, safe, and effective endoscopic treatment [129,131] | Limitations: applies to uncomplicated cases [131] Complications: increased risk of bowel cancer [132] |
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Constantin, M.; Petrescu, L.; Mătanie, C.; Vrancianu, C.O.; Niculescu, A.-G.; Andronic, O.; Bolocan, A. The Vermiform Appendix and Its Pathologies. Cancers 2023, 15, 3872. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15153872
Constantin M, Petrescu L, Mătanie C, Vrancianu CO, Niculescu A-G, Andronic O, Bolocan A. The Vermiform Appendix and Its Pathologies. Cancers. 2023; 15(15):3872. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15153872
Chicago/Turabian StyleConstantin, Marian, Livia Petrescu, Cristina Mătanie, Corneliu Ovidiu Vrancianu, Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu, Octavian Andronic, and Alexandra Bolocan. 2023. "The Vermiform Appendix and Its Pathologies" Cancers 15, no. 15: 3872. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15153872
APA StyleConstantin, M., Petrescu, L., Mătanie, C., Vrancianu, C. O., Niculescu, A.-G., Andronic, O., & Bolocan, A. (2023). The Vermiform Appendix and Its Pathologies. Cancers, 15(15), 3872. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15153872