Modern Surgical Techniques of Thyroidectomy and Advances in the Prevention and Treatment of Perioperative Complications
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Modern Surgical Techniques
3.1.1. Introduction
3.1.2. Trans-Axillary Approach (TAA)
3.1.3. Bilateral Axillo-Breast Approach (BABA)
3.1.4. Natural Orifice Surgery
3.2. Thermal Ablation
3.3. Identification and Assessment of Parathyroid Function
3.3.1. Autofluorescence Imaging
3.3.2. Indocyanine Green Fluorescence (ICGF)
3.3.3. Others
3.4. Perioperative Bleeding
3.4.1. Introduction
3.4.2. Risk Groups
3.4.3. Operating Techniques
3.4.4. Postoperative Management
3.4.5. Others
3.5. Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve
3.5.1. Introduction
3.5.2. Intraoperative Neuromonitoring—Prevention of RLN Paralysis
3.5.3. Surgery Technique—Prevention of RLN Paralysis
3.5.4. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Techniques—Prevention of RLN Paralysis
3.5.5. Treatment of RLN Paralysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ABBA | axillo-bilateral-breast approach |
AC | accuracy |
AI | artificial intelligence |
AR | augmented reality |
ATA | American Thyroid Association |
BABA | bilateral axillo-breast approach |
BABA–RT | robot-assisted bilateral axillo-breast approach |
CIONM | continuous intraoperative neuromonitoring |
DL | deep learning |
DTC | differentiated thyroid cancer |
ESMO | the European Society for Medical Oncology |
ET | endoscopic thyroidectomy |
ETT | endotracheal tube |
ETBAA | endoscopic thyroidectomy via bilateral areola approach |
GETTA | gasless endoscopic thyroidectomy through an axilla |
GTAA | gasless trans-axillary approach |
GUAA | gasless unilateral trans-axillary approach |
ICG | indocyanine green |
ICGF | indocyanine green fluorescence |
IIONM | intermittent intraoperative neuromonitoring |
IIORRLN | immediate intraoperative repair of ralyngeal nerve |
IONM | intraoperative neuromonitoring |
LOS | loss of signal |
LTA | laser thermal ablation |
MWA | microwave ablation |
NC | nanocarbon |
NIFI | near-infrared fluorescence imaging |
NPV | negative predictive value |
OT | open thyroidectomy |
OTA | open thyroidectomy approach |
P/B | the average intensity of parathyroid gland’s surface autofluorescence relative to the average intensity of its background tissue surface fluorescence |
PAP | peak airway pressure |
PECS II | pectoralis major II |
PF | postauricular facelift |
PG | parathyroid gland |
PH | postoperative hypocalcaemia |
POD | postoperative day |
PPV | positive predictive value |
PTC | papillary thyroid cancer |
PTH | parathyroid hormone |
PTX | parathyroidectomy |
RA | retroauricular |
RATT | robotic-assisted trans-axillary thyroidectomy |
RFA | radiofrequency ablation |
RLN | recurrent laryngeal nerve |
RT | robotic thyroidectomy |
TA | trans-axillary |
TAA | trans-axillary approach |
TAb | thermal ablation |
TET | total endoscopic thyroidectomy |
TOA | transoral approach |
TOaST | transoral and submental thyroidectomy |
TOETVA | transoral endoscopic thyroidectomy by vestibular approach |
TORT | transoral robotic thyroidectomy |
VAS | Visual Analog Scale |
UABA | unilateral axillo-breast with carbon dioxide insufflation |
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Approach | Indications | Contraindications | Advantages | Disadvantages | Main Complications | Experience Required | Potential Advancements |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conventional Open Approach | Large * or complicated thyroid tumours, previous neck surgery | N/A | Wide surgical field, easy access to entire thyroid gland | Visible scar, higher risk of complication | Haematoma, infection, vocal cord paralysis, hypoparathyroidism | Any ** | N/A |
TAA | Small to large thyroid tumours, good neck mobility | Previous neck surgery, goitre, large thyroid tumours | Minimally invasive, hidden scar, faster recovery | Limited access to entire thyroid gland, longer operation time and higher total treatment costs compared to open surgery | Haematoma/seroma formation, hypoparathyroidism, paraesthesia, infection | Intermediate | Improved robotics, transitioning to GTAA for enhanced experience in oncological thyroidectomy |
BABA | Small to large thyroid tumours, good neck mobility | Previous neck surgery, goitre | Symmetrical view of thyroid, use of same methods as open surgery possible | Wider surgical flap, higher risk of pain and sensory impairment compared to other minimally invasive techniques | Haematoma, infection, vocal cord paralysis, hypoparathyroidism | Intermediate | Development of mini-flap BABA, improvements in robotics |
TOETVA | Small to medium thyroid tumours, good neck mobility | Large thyroid tumours, previous neck surgery, goitre | Minimally invasive, no scar, faster recovery | Limited access to entire thyroid gland, high learning curve for surgeons, small working space, potential for postoperative seroma and infection | Haematoma, infection, vocal cord paralysis, hypoparathyroidism | Advanced | Further research and development of the technique |
Paper | Procedure | Dataset | Sensitivity (%) | Specificity (%) | Other (%) | Autofluorescence of PGs | Time for PG Identification by NIFI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kim S W 2016 [104] | Thyroidectomy | 16 PGs 8 patients | W | Mean P/B 2.76 P/B 1.95–5.20 | Before operation 5–10 min During operation <1 min | ||
Kim S W 2017 [105] | Thyroidectomy | 70 PGs 38 patients | 100 | 100 | PPV: 100 NPV: 100 AC: 100 | Mean P/B 4.78 P/B 1.96–12.21 | Before operation 10 min During operation 2–3 min |
Ladurner R 2018 [106] | Thyroidectomy | 41 PGs 20 patients | 90 | Extra 10 min of operating time | |||
Takahashi T 2020 [107] | Thyroidectomy | 41 PGs 36 patients | 82.9 | ||||
Kose E 2019 [111] | Thyroidectomy Parathyroidectomy | 971 specimens 310 patients | 98 | Mean P/B 1.73 | During operation <1 min | ||
550 specimens additionally sent to pathology | 98.5 | 97.2 | PPV: 95.1 NPV: 99.1 AC: 97.6 | ||||
Falco J 2016 [112] | Thyroidectomy Parathyroidectomy | 28 patients | Mean 40.6 14.1–67.1 | ||||
McWade WM 2016 [113] | Thyroidectomy Parathyroidectomy | 264 PGs 137 patients | 97 | P/B 1.2–29 | Approximately extra 3–4 min of operating time | ||
Kahramangil B 2018 [114] | Thyroidectomy Parathyroidectomy | 594 PGs 210 patients | 98 | Approximately extra 4 min of operating time | |||
Kim D H 2021 * [115] | Thyroidectomy Parathyroidectomy | 17 studies with 1198 participants | 96.93 | 92.48 | NPV: 95.17 PPV: 94.88 |
Paper | Procedure | Dataset | Detected PGs with ICGF (%) | Transient HP (%) | Permanent HP (%) | Incidental PTX (%) | Mean PTH Level (pg/dL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zaidi N 2016 [116] | Thyroidectomy | 85 PGs 27 patients | 84 | Patients with at least 2 PGs with the ICGF < 30% of the PG’s volume, POD 1: 9 | |||
Patients with fewer than 2 PGs with the ICGF < 30% of the PG’s volume, POD 1: 19.5 | |||||||
p = 0.05 | |||||||
Yu H W 2016 [117] | Thyroidectomy | 44 patients without ICGF | 18.2 | 2.3 | 15.9 | ||
22 patients with ICGF | 18.2 | 4.5 | 0 | ||||
Rudin A 2019 [119] | Thyroidectomy | 124 patients without ICGF | 21 | ||||
86 patients with ICGF | 82 | 19 | |||||
Zaidi N 2016 [120] | PTX | 112 PGs 33 patients | 92.9 |
Paper | Risk Factors |
---|---|
Scaroni M 2020 [130] | Graves’ disease, benign pathology, previous thyroid surgery, age > 65 years, African American race, history of alcohol abuse, BMI greater than >30 kg/m, male sex |
Saitou M 2021 [131] | Graves’ disease, advanced age, male sex, use of anticoagulants, complications of haematological diseases (inherited bleeding disorder characterised by the absence or reduced levels of clotting factor VIII or IX) |
Wojtczak B 2018 [129] | Graves–Basedow disease, toxic adenoma, toxic multinodular goitre |
Weiss A 2014 [132] | Age > 45 years, African American and Native American patients, male sex, inflammatory conditions of the thyroid, chronic kidney disease |
Edafe O 2020 [127] | Thyroidectomy (vs. hemithyroidectomy and parathyroidectomy), older age, male gender, antithrombotic medication, bleeding disorders |
Sun N 2020 [128] | BMI > 30 kg/m, age > 45 years, partial thyroidectomy, inflammatory thyroid disease, bleeding disorders, chronic kidney diseases, hypertension, diabetes |
Doran HE 2021 [124] | Retrosternal goitre, hyperthyroidism at presentation, male sex, total thyroidectomy, patient age |
Patel KN 2020 [123] | Male sex, age > 65 years, smoking, continued use of antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications, Graves–Basedow disease, total thyroidectomy (vs. lobectomy), drain placement, African American race, history of alcohol abuse, 3 or more significant comorbidities, substernal thyroidectomy, reoperation |
Liu J 2017 [133] | Older age, male sex, Graves’ disease, antithrombotic agents use, bilateral operation, previous thyroid surgery |
I | Irrigation of wound with water—to clear and search for bleeding |
T | Time—wait for some time |
S R | Systolic blood pressure > 100 mm Hg at closing Relieve neck extension—for example, flexing the neck |
E D | Elevate venous pressure—using the Valsalva manoeuvre or by positioning the patient with their head down Do not drain—do not drain it; deal with it and consider sealing agents, e.g., fibrin |
FRED | Flaps—evaluation of bleeding under subplatysmal flaps prior to closure |
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Ludwig, B.; Ludwig, M.; Dziekiewicz, A.; Mikuła, A.; Cisek, J.; Biernat, S.; Kaliszewski, K. Modern Surgical Techniques of Thyroidectomy and Advances in the Prevention and Treatment of Perioperative Complications. Cancers 2023, 15, 2931. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15112931
Ludwig B, Ludwig M, Dziekiewicz A, Mikuła A, Cisek J, Biernat S, Kaliszewski K. Modern Surgical Techniques of Thyroidectomy and Advances in the Prevention and Treatment of Perioperative Complications. Cancers. 2023; 15(11):2931. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15112931
Chicago/Turabian StyleLudwig, Bartłomiej, Maksymilian Ludwig, Anna Dziekiewicz, Agnieszka Mikuła, Jakub Cisek, Szymon Biernat, and Krzysztof Kaliszewski. 2023. "Modern Surgical Techniques of Thyroidectomy and Advances in the Prevention and Treatment of Perioperative Complications" Cancers 15, no. 11: 2931. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15112931