Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres and Mediated Telomere Synthesis
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. ALT and ALT-Related Phenotypes
2.1. ALT-Associated PML Bodies
2.2. Extrachromosomal Telomeric Repeats
2.3. Telomere Sister Chromatid Exchange (T-SCE)
2.4. Chromatin Remodeling and Gene Mutations
2.5. Heterochromatin at Telomeres
3. SMARCAL1 and FA Proteins Balance Replication Stress of ALT Telomeres to Ensure Telomere Synthesis
3.1. SMARCAL1
3.2. FA Proteins
4. Initiation of the ALT Pathway: DNA Damage at ALT Telomeres
5. Telomere Extension in ALT: Two Distinct Break-Induced Replication Pathways
6. Unraveling Recombinant Intermediates in ALT+ Cells
7. Conclusions
Targeting ALT-Related Cancers
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Abbreviation | Meaning |
Alt-NHEJ | Alternative non-homologous end joining |
ALT | Alternative lengthening of telomeres |
ALT+ | ALT pathway-positive |
ATRX | Alpha-thalassemia/mental retardation X-linked chromatin remodeler |
APB | ALT -associated PML body |
APBs | ALT-associated PML bodies |
BIR | Break-induced replication |
BTR | BLM-TOP3α-RMI1-RMI2 |
c-NHEJ | Classical non-homologous end joining |
CST | CTC1-STN1-TEN1 |
DAXX | Death domain-associated protein |
DDR | DNA damage response |
DSBs | Double-strand breaks |
D-loop | DNA displacement loop |
ECTRs | Extrachromosomal telomeric repeats |
HJ | Holliday junction |
HP1α | Heterochromatin protein 1 |
HR | Homologous recombination |
I-loops | Internal loops |
KAP1 | KRAB-associated protein 1 |
LLPS | Liquid–liquid phase separation |
MiDAS | Mitotic DNA synthesis |
PARP | Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase |
PCNA | Proliferating cell nuclear antigen |
PML | Promyelocytic leukemia |
RFC | Replication factor C |
SIM | SUMO-interacting motif |
SMX | SLX1-SLX4, MUS81-EME1, and XPF-ERCC1 |
ssDNA | Single-strand DNA |
T-circle | Telomere circle |
TERC | Telomerase RNA component |
TERRA | Telomeric repeats containing RNA |
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Hou, K.; Yu, Y.; Li, D.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, K.; Tong, J.; Yang, K.; Jia, S. Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres and Mediated Telomere Synthesis. Cancers 2022, 14, 2194. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14092194
Hou K, Yu Y, Li D, Zhang Y, Zhang K, Tong J, Yang K, Jia S. Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres and Mediated Telomere Synthesis. Cancers. 2022; 14(9):2194. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14092194
Chicago/Turabian StyleHou, Kailong, Yuyang Yu, Duda Li, Yanduo Zhang, Ke Zhang, Jinkai Tong, Kunxian Yang, and Shuting Jia. 2022. "Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres and Mediated Telomere Synthesis" Cancers 14, no. 9: 2194. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14092194