Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Mishra, Manisha; Farias, Leonor Georgette; Song, Steven; Nguyen, Steven; Shah, Purav; Dillman, Adler R.

doi:10.3390/toxins18040185

This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.

Open AccessArticle

Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

by

Manisha Mishra

,

Leonor Georgette Farias

,

Steven Song

,

Steven Nguyen

,

Purav Shah

and

Adler R. Dillman

^*

Department of Nematology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Toxins 2026, 18(4), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040185

Submission received: 3 March 2026 / Revised: 4 April 2026 / Accepted: 9 April 2026 / Published: 14 April 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins from Animal Venoms Modulating Cellular Activities)

Download Versions Notes

Abstract

The use of Steinernema carpocapsae infective juveniles as biological control agents is a long-standing practice, yet the oral impact of their secreted venom proteins on crop pests remains largely unknown. We evaluated the oral toxicity of S. carpocapsae venom proteins against Spodoptera frugiperda using artificial diet assays. Ingestion caused significant dose-dependent toxicity in early-instar larvae, resulting in mortality and a prolonged developmental duration. Carry-over effects were profound; treated pupae were smaller and malformed, with only 19% of larvae fed on 1000 ng g⁻¹ venom protein-supplemented diet reaching adulthood compared to 92% in controls. Surviving adults lived 30% fewer days and laid over 90% fewer morphologically normal eggs. These physiological disruptions coincided with elevated oxidative stress and detoxification enzyme activity, suggesting the venom induces oxidative and detoxification responses, which may be associated with the observed phenotypic alterations. This study provides the first demonstration of the oral toxicity of entomopathogenic nematode venom proteins, positioning them as a promising resource for the discovery of novel insecticidal proteins for sustainable pest management.

Keywords: Steinernema carpocapsae; Spodoptera frugiperda; entomopathogenic nematodes; venom proteins; biopesticides

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mishra, M.; Farias, L.G.; Song, S.; Nguyen, S.; Shah, P.; Dillman, A.R. Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Toxins 2026, 18, 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040185

AMA Style

Mishra M, Farias LG, Song S, Nguyen S, Shah P, Dillman AR. Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Toxins. 2026; 18(4):185. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040185

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mishra, Manisha, Leonor Georgette Farias, Steven Song, Steven Nguyen, Purav Shah, and Adler R. Dillman. 2026. "Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)" Toxins 18, no. 4: 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040185

APA Style

Mishra, M., Farias, L. G., Song, S., Nguyen, S., Shah, P., & Dillman, A. R. (2026). Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Toxins, 18(4), 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040185

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Menu

Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Abstract

Share and Cite

Article Metrics

Article Access Statistics

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI