Broad and Inconsistent Muscle Food Classification Is Problematic for Dietary Guidance in the U.S.
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. How Muscle Food Types Are Grouped and Intake Values Estimated in the U.S.
3. The Importance of Considering Nutrient Content When Grouping Muscle Foods for Dietary Intake Assessment
4. Discussion of Implications of Inconsistent Muscle Food Groupings on Scientific Conclusions and Dietary Guidelines
5. Future Directions and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Description and Examples | Demographic Information |
---|---|---|
Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) | Relates dietary intake patterns to disease development over time and are designed to yield approximate intakes of broad food categories. Used commonly in prospective cohort studies. | |
An example includes the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health and the Brigham and Women’s Semi-quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire [10] used in the Health Professional Follow-up Study and Nurses’ Health Study I and II cohorts [17]. | At cohort initiation, the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study included n = 37,083 men aged 40 to 75 years, the Nurses’ Health Study I included n = 79,570 women aged 30 to 55 years, and the Nurses’ Health Study II included n = 87,504 women aged 25 to 42 years all with at least 20 years of follow-up data [17]. | |
Another example includes the National Cancer Institute Diet History Questionnaire II [11] used in the National Institute of Health American Association of Retired Persons (NIH-AARP) Diet and Health Study cohort [3]. | At cohort initiation, the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study included n = 536,969 men and women respondents aged 50 to 71 years from six U.S. states and two metropolitan areas with at least 16 years of follow-up data [3]. | |
Food Disappearance Data | Estimates the amount of food in the food supply chain from production to retail outlets available for purchase; used to infer consumption. | |
An example includes the United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (USDA-ERS) [9] which calculates summary estimates of per capita food and nutrient availability at the primary, retail and consumer levels based on total U.S. population 1. | Food availability estimates are developed by utilizing U.S. commodity market information to estimate the national food supply available to the population. The USDA-ERS uses sampling and statistical methods to calculate estimates. | |
Dietary Recalls | Measures participants’ recollection of food/beverage types and amounts consumed during the previous day; used to infer eating patterns. | |
An example includes the 2013–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Food Pattern Equivalency Database (NHANES, FPED) [12] which categorizes and quantifies equivalency (ounces per day 2) of dietary recall information from the NHANES into intake of broad food categories. | The 2013–2014 NHANES, FPED database included n = 9813 men and women in the U.S. aged 2 to 80 years. Dietary data were collected via two 24-h dietary recalls separated by at least 10 days. Interviews were conducted in-person or by phone using an automated multiple pass method and then statistically analyzed. |
NHANES, FPED Dataset 1 | USDA-ERS Dataset 2 |
---|---|
Total meat | Total meat, fish, eggs and nuts |
Meat Cured Meat Poultry Organ meat Seafood from high omega-3 sources Seafood from low omega-3 sources | Total red meat Total Poultry Total fresh and frozen, canned, and cured fish and shellfish Eggs Peanuts Total tree nuts Coconut |
Meat | Total red meat |
Beef Veal Pork Lamb Game meat | Beef Veal Pork Lamb |
Cured Meat | Category not included in dataset |
Cured or luncheon meat made from beef, pork or poultry | |
Poultry | Total poultry |
Chicken Turkey Cornish hens Game birds | Chicken Turkey |
* Two categories of Seafood | Total fresh and frozen, canned, and cured fish and Shellfish |
Seafood from high omega-3 sources Finfish Shellfish Other seafood Seafood from low omega-3 sources Finfish Shellfish Other seafood | Total fresh and frozen fish and shellfish Fresh and frozen fish Fresh and frozen shellfish Total canned fish and shellfish Canned salmon Canned sardines Canned tuna Canned shellfish Other canned fish Cured Fish |
Other Categories in the dataset | Other Categories in the dataset |
Organ Meat | Eggs |
Organ meat from beef, veal, pork, lamb, game or poultry | Peanuts |
Total Tree nuts Almonds Hazelnuts Pecans Walnuts Macadamia nuts Pistachio nuts Other tree nuts | |
Coconut |
Used to Infer Consumption 2 by Asking Respondents the Following Prompted Question: “Please Fill in Your Average Total Use, during the Past Year, of Each Specified Food.” |
---|
Bacon (2 slices) |
Chicken or turkey sandwich or frozen dinner |
Other chicken or turkey, with skin (3 ounces) |
Other chicken or turkey, including ground without skin (3 ounces) |
Beef or pork hot dogs (1) |
Chicken or turkey hot dogs or sausages (1) |
Salami, bologna, or other processed meat sandwiches |
Other processed meats, e.g., sausage, kielbasa, etc. (2 ounces or 2 small links) |
Hamburger, lean or extra lean (1 patty) |
Hamburger, regular (1 patty) |
Beef, pork, or lamb as a sandwich or mixed dish, e.g., stew, casserole, lasagna, frozen dinner, etc. |
Pork as a main dish, e.g., ham or chops (4–6 ounces) |
Beef or lamb as a main dish, e.g., steak, roast (4–6 ounces) |
Liver: beef, calf or pork (4 ounces) |
Liver: chicken or turkey (1 ounces) |
Canned tuna fish (3–4 ounces) |
Breaded fish cakes, pieces, or fish sticks (1 serving, store bought) |
Shrimp, lobster, scallops, clams as a main dish (1 serving) |
Dark meat fish e.g., tuna steak, mackerel, salmon, sardines, bluefish, swordfish (3–5 ounces) |
Other fish, e.g., cod, haddock, halibut (3–5 ounces) |
Muscle Food | Energy | Protein | Total Fat | Iron | Zinc | Sodium | Potassium | Niacin | B12 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(kcal) | (g) | (g) | (mg) | %DV | (mg) | %DV | (mg) | %DV | (mg) | %DV | (mg) | %DV | (μg) | %DV | |
Beef, chuck eye steak 2 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 178 | 23.75 | 9.17 | 2.44 | 14 | 8.96 | 60 | 64 | 3 | 323 | 9 | 4.41 | 22 | 2.86 | 48 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 355 | 47.5 | 18.34 | 4.88 | 27 | 17.92 | 119 | 128 | 5 | 646 | 18 | 8.82 | 44 | 5.73 | 96 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 533 | 71.25 | 27.51 | 7.32 | 41 | 26.88 | 179 | 191 | 8 | 969 | 28 | 13.24 | 66 | 8.59 | 143 |
Beef, tenderloin steak 3 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 168 | 26.09 | 7.07 | 3.05 | 17 | 3.98 | 27 | 50 | 2 | 332 | 9 | 5.3 | 27 | 3.88 | 65 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 337 | 52.19 | 14.14 | 6.1 | 34 | 7.96 | 53 | 100 | 4 | 663 | 19 | 10.6 | 53 | 7.77 | 130 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 505 | 78.28 | 21.22 | 9.15 | 51 | 11.93 | 80 | 150 | 6 | 994 | 28 | 15.9 | 80 | 11.65 | 194 |
Deli Roast beef 4 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 98 | 15.83 | 3.14 | 1.74 | 10 | 2.72 | 18 | 725 | 30 | 550 | 16 | 4.74 | 24 | 1.73 | 29 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 196 | 31.65 | 6.27 | 3.48 | 19 | 5.44 | 36 | 1450 | 60 | 1100 | 31 | 9.49 | 47 | 3.47 | 58 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 293 | 47.48 | 9.41 | 5.23 | 29 | 8.16 | 54 | 2175 | 91 | 1650 | 47 | 14.23 | 71 | 5.2 | 87 |
Pork, loin chop 5 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 144 | 25.96 | 3.69 | 0.77 | 4 | 2.01 | 13 | 57 | 2 | 229 | 7 | 8.72 | 44 | 0.56 | 9 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 289 | 51.92 | 7.38 | 1.55 | 9 | 4.03 | 27 | 114 | 5 | 457 | 13 | 17.45 | 87 | 1.12 | 19 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 433 | 77.88 | 11.07 | 2.32 | 13 | 6.04 | 40 | 171 | 7 | 686 | 20 | 26.17 | 131 | 1.68 | 28 |
Ham, cured 6 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 133 | 21.29 | 4.67 | 0.8 | 4 | 2.18 | 15 | 1128 | 47 | 269 | 8 | 4.27 | 21 | 0.59 | 10 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 267 | 42.59 | 9.35 | 1.6 | 9 | 4.37 | 29. | 2256 | 94 | 537 | 15 | 8.53 | 43 | 1.19 | 20 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 400 | 63.88 | 14.02 | 2.4 | 13 | 6.55 | 44 | 3384 | 141 | 806 | 23 | 12.8 | 64 | 1.78 | 30 |
Turkey, breast 7 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 116 | 25.08 | 1.67 | 0.82 | 5 | 1.29 | 9 | 97 | 4 | 252 | 7 | 9.99 | 50 | 1.5 | 25 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 231 | 50.17 | 3.35 | 1.65 | 9 | 2.58 | 17 | 194 | 8 | 505 | 14 | 19.98 | 100 | 2.99 | 50 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 347 | 75.25 | 5.02 | 2.47 | 14 | 3.88 | 26 | 291 | 12 | 757 | 22 | 29.96 | 150 | 4.49 | 75 |
Deli Turkey 8 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 93 | 18.54 | 0.71 | 0.54 | 3 | 1.14 | 8 | 660 | 28 | 180 | 5 | 0.09 | 0 | 0.08 | 1 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 185 | 37.08 | 1.41 | 1.08 | 6 | 2.27 | 15 | 1320 | 55 | 361 | 10 | 0.19 | 1 | 0.15 | 3 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 278 | 55.62 | 2.12 | 1.62 | 9 | 3.41 | 23 | 1980 | 83 | 541 | 15 | 0.28 | 1 | 0.23 | 4 |
Salmon 9 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 175 | 18.79 | 10.5 | 0.29 | 2 | 0.37 | 3 | 52 | 2 | 326 | 9 | 6.84 | 34 | 2.38 | 0 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 350 | 37.57 | 21 | 0.58 | 3 | 0.73 | 5 | 104 | 4 | 653 | 19 | 13.68 | 68 | 4.76 | 1 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 525 | 56.35 | 31.49 | 0.87 | 5 | 1.1 | 7 | 156 | 7 | 979 | 28 | 20.52 | 103 | 7.14 | 1 |
Sardines 10 | |||||||||||||||
3 ounces (85 g) | 177 | 20.93 | 9.73 | 2.48 | 14 | 1.11 | 7 | 261 | 11 | 337 | 10 | 4.46 | 22 | 7.6 | 1 |
6 ounces (170 g) | 354 | 41.85 | 19.46 | 4.96 | 28 | 2.23 | 15 | 522 | 22 | 675 | 19 | 8.92 | 45 | 15.2 | 3 |
9 ounces (255 g) | 530 | 62.78 | 29.2 | 7.45 | 41 | 3.34 | 22 | 783 | 33 | 1012 | 29 | 13.38 | 67 | 22.8 | 4 |
Author, Year | Categorization and Definitions of Red Meat |
---|---|
Kaluza, 2012 [42] | “fresh red meat”—no definition provided |
“processed meat”—no definition provided | |
“total red meat”—no definition provided | |
Micha, 2010 [39] | “red meat”—unprocessed meat from beef, hamburgers, lamb pork, or game, excluding poultry, fish, or eggs |
“processed meat”—any meat preserved by smoking, curing, or salting or addition of chemical preservatives, including examples such as bacon, salami, sausages, hot dogs, or processed deli or luncheon meats, excluding fish or eggs | |
“total meat”—total of these two categories | |
Micha, 2012 [38] | “total unprocessed red meat”—beef, pork, and lamb |
“total processed meat”—bacon, hot dogs, sausage, salami, and processed deli or luncheon meats | |
Wang, 2016 [40] | “unprocessed red meat”—beef, lamb, or pork, excluded poultry and fish |
“processed meat”—any meat preserved by salting, curing or smoking, or with the addition of chemical preservatives, including examples such as bacon, sausages, salami, hot dogs or processed deli meats | |
“total red meat”—sum of the two categories | |
Pan, 2012 [37] | “unprocessed red meat”—beef, pork or lamb as main dish, hamburger, and beef, pork, or lamb as sandwich or mixed dish |
“processed red meat”—bacon, hot dogs, sausage, salami, bologna, and other processed red meats |
DGA Edition and Release Year | Categorization of Meat in the DGA |
---|---|
1st edition; 1980 [44] | Meats, poultry, fish, and eggs |
2nd edition; 1985 [45] | Meats, poultry, fish, eggs, and dry beans and peas |
3rd edition; 1990 [46] | Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, and eggs |
4th edition; 1995 [47] | Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group (included in the Food Guide Pyramid) |
5th edition; 2000 [48] | Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group; also referred to as the Meat and Beans (included in the Food Guide Pyramid) |
6th edition; 2005 [49] | Meat and Beans (inclusive of poultry and fish as part of eating pattern examples) |
7th edition; 2010 [50] | Meat (with separate food groups for poultry and fish as part of eating pattern examples) |
8th edition; 2015 [2] | Meats, poultry, and eggs (as part of recommended eating patterns) |
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Share and Cite
Gifford, C.L.; O’Connor, L.E.; Campbell, W.W.; Woerner, D.R.; Belk, K.E. Broad and Inconsistent Muscle Food Classification Is Problematic for Dietary Guidance in the U.S. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9091027
Gifford CL, O’Connor LE, Campbell WW, Woerner DR, Belk KE. Broad and Inconsistent Muscle Food Classification Is Problematic for Dietary Guidance in the U.S. Nutrients. 2017; 9(9):1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9091027
Chicago/Turabian StyleGifford, Cody L., Lauren E. O’Connor, Wayne W. Campbell, Dale R. Woerner, and Keith E. Belk. 2017. "Broad and Inconsistent Muscle Food Classification Is Problematic for Dietary Guidance in the U.S." Nutrients 9, no. 9: 1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9091027