Water Intake and Hydration Indices in Healthy European Adults: The European Hydration Research Study (EHRS)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Recruitment
2.2. Study Protocol
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. 24 h Urine Samples
3.2. Blood Indices
3.3. Total Water Intake
3.4. Classification of Subjects
3.5. Linear Regression Model
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sodium (mEq/Day) | Potassium (mEq/Day) | Creatinine (mg/Day) | Urine Osmolality (mOsmol/kg·Η2Ο) | Urine Volume (L) | USG | Color | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Winter | Male | 178.4 ± 51.5 | 76.0 ± 20.1 | 1738.4 ± 523.0 | 652 ± 211 | 1.66 ± 0.62 | 1.018 ± 0.005 | 4.4 ± 1.4 |
Female | 162.9 ± 56.7 | 68.8 ± 21.8 | 1335.6 ± 404.1 | 571 ± 197 | 1.70 ± 0.72 | 1.016 ± 0.005 | 4.1 ± 1.3 | |
Total | 171.4 ± 54.4 | 72.7 ± 21.2 | 1555.2 ± 512.8 | 615 ± 209 | 1.68 ± 0.66 | 1.017 ± 0.005 | 4.2 ± 1.4 | |
Summer | Male | 181.9 ± 50.1 | 76.2 ± 25.7 | 1820.6 ± 451.6 | 698 ± 192 | 1.61 ± 0.70 | 1.018 ± 0.005 | 4.6 ± 1.2 |
Female | 145.6 ± 53.1 | 68.5 ± 28.3 | 1290.0 ± 474.4 | 596 ± 251 | 1.63 ± 0.77 | 1.015 ± 0.006 | 3.9 ± 1.6 | |
Total | 162.8 ±54.7 | 72.2 ± 27.3 | 1543.7 ± 533.6 | 645 ± 230 | 1.62 ± 0.73 | 1.017 ± 0.006 | 4.2 ± 1.5 | |
P1 | 0.021 | 0.005 | <0.001 | 0.001 | 0.586 | 0.003 | 0.069 | |
P2 | <0.001 | 0.016 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.789 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
P3 | 0.065 | 0.789 | 0.795 | 0.111 | 0.370 | 0.679 | 0.983 | |
Winter & Summer | Total Male | 180.1 ± 50.8 | 76.1± 22.9 | 1779.1 ± 489.9 | 675 ± 203 | 1.63 ± 0.66 | 1.018 ± 0.005 | 4.5 ± 1.3 |
Total Female | 153.2 ± 55.3 | 68.6 ± 25.6 | 1310 ± 444.7 | 585 ± 229 | 1.66 ± 0.74 | 1.015 ± 0.006 | 4.0 ± 1.5 | |
Total Sample | 166.9 ± 54.7 | 72.4 ± 24.6 | 1549.1 ± 523.4 | 631 ± 221 | 1.65 ± 0.70 | 1.017 ± 0.005 | 4.2 ± 1.4 | |
P4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.619 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Country | German | 162.2 ± 50.3 *,# | 77.9 ± 24.1 # | 1454.0 ± 401.0 * | 492 ± 170 *,# | 2.13 ± 0.76 *,# | 1.014 ± 0.005 *,# | 4.4 ± 1.3 # |
Spain | 192.8 ± 51.7 + | 74.0 ± 27.8 + | 1807.9 ± 621.2 + | 753 ± 180+ | 1.40 ± 0.49 | 1.019 ± 0.004 + | 4.4 ± 1.5 + | |
Greece | 143.8 ± 51.0 | 64.4 ± 18.7 | 1377.9 ± 415.3 | 658 ± 224 | 1.36 ± 0.50 | 1.017 ± 0.006 | 4.0 ±1.5 | |
P5 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.008 |
Hb (g/dL) | Htc (%) | Glucose (mmol/L) | Serum Osmolality (mOsmol/kg Η2Ο) | Sodium (mEq/L) | Potassium (mEq/L) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Winter | Male | 15.3 ± 1.5 | 45 ± 3 | 4.67 ± 0.46 | 297 ± 10 | 143.0 ± 4.9 | 4.4 ± 0.4 |
Female | 14.1 ± 1.6 | 42 ± 4 | 4.73 ± 0.52 | 294 ± 10 | 141.6 ± 3.9 | 4.4 ± 0.4 | |
Total | 14.7 ± 1.7 | 43 ± 4 | 4.70 ± 0.49 | 296 ± 10 | 142.4 ± 4.5 | 4.4 ± 0.4 | |
Summer | Male | 15.5 ± 1.5 | 45 ± 3 | 5.02 ± 1.09 | 293 ± 7 | 143.3 ± 5.1 | 4.5 ± 0.5 |
Female | 14.0 ± 1.6 | 41 ± 4 | 4.88 ± 1.59 | 291 ± 8 | 144.7 ± 11.3 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | |
Total | 14.7 ± 1.7 | 43 ± 4 | 4.94 ± 1.37 | 292 ± 8 | 144.0 ± 8.9 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | |
P1 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.339 | 0.015 | 0.020 | 0.580 | |
P2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.388 | 0.081 | 0.166 | 0.064 | |
P3 | 0.824 | 0.397 | 0.005 | <0.001 | 0.005 | <0.001 | |
Winter & Summer | Total Male | 15.4 ± 1.5 | 45 ± 3 | 4.84 ± 0.85 | 295 ± 9 | 143.1 ± 5.0 | 4.5 ± 0.5 |
Total Female | 14.0 ± 1.6 | 42 ± 4 | 4.81± 1.24 | 292 ± 9 | 143.3 ± 8.9 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | |
Total Sample | 14.7 ± 1.7 | 43 ± 4 | 4.83 ± 1.06 | 294 ± 9 | 143.2 ± 7.2 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | |
P4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.724 | 0.001 | 0.717 | 0.159 | |
Country | German | 14.3 ± 1.3 * | 43 ± 3 *,# | 4.52 ± 1.43 *,# | 298 ± 11*# | 141.0 ± 1.7 # | 4.5 ± 0.4 # |
Spain | 15.2 ± 1.3+ | 46 ± 3 + | 4.96 ± 0.39 | 289 ± 8 + | 141.2 ± 2.6 + | 4.4 ± 0.5 + | |
Greece | 14.6 ± 2.3 | 41 ± 4 | 5.07 ± 0.97 | 294 ± 6 | 148.5 ± 11.4 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | |
P5 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Total Water Intake (L/Day) | Water from Beverages (L/Day) | Water from Foods (L/Day) | Total Energy Intake (kcal/Day) | Energy from Beverages (kcal/Day) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Winter | Male | 2.77 ± 1.10 | 2.12 ± 1.09 | 0.67 ± 0.31 | 2248 ± 659 | 302 ± 203 |
Female | 2.49 ± 0.80 | 1.89 ± 0.71 | 0.61 ± 0.25 | 1913 ± 477 | 258 ± 143 | |
Total | 2.64 ± 0.98 | 2.01 ± 0.94 | 0.64 ± 0.29 | 2093 ± 605 | 282 ± 179 | |
Summer | Male | 3.09 ± 1.07 | 2.41 ± 0.93 | 0.69 ± 0.29 | 2413 ± 706 | 338 ± 233 |
Female | 2.61 ± 0.91 | 1.97 ± 0.75 | 0.64 ± 0.29 | 1989 ± 580 | 254 ± 141 | |
Total | 2.84 ± 1.02 | 2.18 ± 0.87 | 0.68 ± 0.29 | 2192 ± 676 | 294 ± 195 | |
P1 | 0.014 | 0.034 | 0.075 | <0.001 | 0.038 | |
P2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.152 | <0.001 | 0.001 | |
P3 | 0.019 | 0.027 | 0.339 | 0.068 | 0.430 | |
Winter & Summer | Total Male | 2.93 ± 1.10 | 2.27 ± 1.02 | 0.68 ± 0.30 | 2329 ± 686 | 320 ± 219 |
Total Female | 2.55 ± 0.86 | 1.93 ± 0.73 | 0.63 ± 0.27 | 1955 ± 537 | 256 ± 142 | |
Total Sample | 2.75 ± 1.01 | 2.10 ± 0.91 | 0.66 ± 0.29 | 2148 ± 644 | 288 ± 188 | |
P4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.027 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Country | German | 3.29 ± 0.98 *,# | 2.49 ± 0.87 *,# | 0.81 ± 0.27 *,# | 2412 ± 609 *,# | 358 ± 240 *,# |
Spain | 2.55 ± 0.98 | 1.96 ± 0.95 | 0.61 ± 0.29 + | 2214 ± 633 + | 296 ± 145 + | |
Greece | 2.35 ± 0.77 | 1.82 ± 0.74 | 0.54 ± 0.23 | 1777 ± 512 | 203 ± 113 | |
P5 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Categories of Hydration Status According to Urine Osmolality (mOsm/kg H20) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hyperhydrated | Euhydrated | Dehydrated | p | |
(<383) | (383 to 810) | (>810) | ||
Females, % (n) | 23.2 (64) | 58.0 (160) | 18.8 (52) | |
Total water intake (L/day) | 3.36 ± 1.02 | 2.42 ± 0.61 | 2.02 ± 0.65 | <0.001 |
Water from beverages (L/day) | 2.60 ± 0.91 | 1.81 ± 0.49 | 1.53 ± 0.57 | <0.001 |
24 h urine volume (L) | 2.51 ± 0.73 | 1.54 ± 0.52 | 1.00 ± 0.25 | <0.001 |
24 h urine specific gravity | 1.009 ± 0.002 | 1.016 ± 0.004 | 1.023 ± 0.003 | <0.001 |
24 h urine color | 3.0 ± 1.2 | 3.9 ± 1.2 | 5.5 ± 1.2 | <0.001 |
24 h urine Na (mEq/day) | 129.4 ± 37.1 | 158.7 ± 59.1 | 166.3 ± 54.2 | <0.001 |
24 h urine K (mEq/day) | 73.9 ± 36.5 | 67.6 ± 21.6 | 65.4 ± 20.1 | 0.153 |
24 h urine creatinine (mg/day) | 1137.6 ± 249.1 | 1362.5 ± 494.0 | 1363.6 ± 429.6 | 0.002 |
(<475) | (475 to 880) | (>880) | ||
Males, % (n) | 19.4 (55) | 61.8 (181) | 18.8 (54) | |
Total water intake (L/day) | 3.59 ± 1.04 | 2.8 ± 0.99 | 2.64 ± 1.25 | <0.001 |
Water from beverages (L/day) | 2.83 ± 1.00 | 2.15 ± 0.86 | 2.08 ± 1.31 | <0.001 |
24 h urine volume (L) | 2.45 ± 0.69 | 1.56 ± 0.46 | 1.00 ±0.24 | <0.001 |
24 h urine specific gravity | 1.011 ± 0.002 | 1.018 ± 0.003 | 1.025 ± 0.02 | <0.001 |
24 h urine color | 3.6 ± 1.4 | 4.3 ± 1.1 | 5.9 ± 1.0 | <0.001 |
24 h urine Na (mEq/day) | 156.4 ± 50.0 | 187.7 ± 46.4 | 180.1 ± 59.5 | <0.001 |
24 h urine K (mEq/day) | 76.9 ± 19.9 | 77.7 ± 24.4 | 69.8 ± 20.2 | 0.091 |
24 h urine creatinine (mg/day) | 1517.7 ± 399.02 | 1862.9 ± 483.3 | 1771.2 ± 522.1 | <0.001 |
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Malisova, O.; Athanasatou, A.; Pepa, A.; Husemann, M.; Domnik, K.; Braun, H.; Mora-Rodriguez, R.; Ortega, J.F.; Fernandez-Elias, V.E.; Kapsokefalou, M. Water Intake and Hydration Indices in Healthy European Adults: The European Hydration Research Study (EHRS). Nutrients 2016, 8, 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8040204
Malisova O, Athanasatou A, Pepa A, Husemann M, Domnik K, Braun H, Mora-Rodriguez R, Ortega JF, Fernandez-Elias VE, Kapsokefalou M. Water Intake and Hydration Indices in Healthy European Adults: The European Hydration Research Study (EHRS). Nutrients. 2016; 8(4):204. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8040204
Chicago/Turabian StyleMalisova, Olga, Adelais Athanasatou, Alex Pepa, Marlien Husemann, Kirsten Domnik, Hans Braun, Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez, Juan F. Ortega, Valentin E. Fernandez-Elias, and Maria Kapsokefalou. 2016. "Water Intake and Hydration Indices in Healthy European Adults: The European Hydration Research Study (EHRS)" Nutrients 8, no. 4: 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8040204