The Cross-Sectional Association of Energy Intake and Dietary Energy Density with Body Composition of Children in Southwest China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Subjects and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Dietary Data
2.3. Misreporting of EI and Calculating of Dietary ED
2.4. Anthropometry
2.5. Other Data
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Boys | Girls | p2 | |
---|---|---|---|
n (%) | 572 (47%) | 635 (53%) | |
Age (year) | 12.3 ± 0.2 | 11.7 ± 0.9 | 0.4 |
Birth weight (kg) | 3.3 ± 0.5 | 3.2 ± 1.0 | <0.0001 |
Exclusive breastfeeding duration ( n, %) 3 | 435 (76.1) | 483 (76.1) | 0.9 |
The timing of adding complementary foods (n, %) 3 | 475 (83.0) | 518 (81.6) | 0.5 |
High physical activity level (n, %) | 177 (30.9) | 190 (29.9) | 0.7 |
Anthropometric Data 4 | |||
BMI z-scores | 0.1 (−0.4, 0.8) | 0.3 (−0.2, 0.9) | 0.0003 |
%BF | 14.5 (11.5, 19.8) | 18.4 (14.8, 24.2) | <0.0001 |
FMI (kg/m2) | 2.8 (2.1, 4.1) | 3.1 (2.3, 4.1) | 0.02 |
FFMI (kg/m2) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.8) | 13.8 (12.5, 15.7) | 0.006 |
WHR | 0.85 (0.82, 0.89) | 0.83 (0.79, 0.86) | <0.0001 |
Overweight/obesity ( n, %) 5 | 118 (20.6) | 83 (13.1) | 0.0004 |
Overweight/obesity (n, %) 6 | 98 (17.1) | 69 (10.9) | 0.002 |
Dietary Data 7 | |||
Total energy intake (MJ/day) | 8.4 (6.9, 10.5) | 7.6 (6.3, 9.4) | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (% of energy) | 58.7 (52.8, 64.5) | 59.8 (53.6, 64.4) | 0.8 |
Fat (% of energy) | 26.8 (21.8, 32.0) | 25.8 (21.3, 31.6) | 0.7 |
Protein (% of energy) | 14.5 (12.7, 16.5) | 14.4 (12.9, 16.4) | 0.06 |
Fiber intake (g/MJ) | 1.0 (0.7, 1.2) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.4) | <0.0001 |
ED1 (kJ/g·day) | 4.2 (3.7, 5.0) | 4.0 (3.5, 4.6) | <0.0001 |
ED2 (kJ/g·day) | 6.9 (6.0, 7.9) | 6.6 (5.9, 7.6) | 0.002 |
ED3 (kJ/g·day) | 5.9 (5.2, 6.8) | 5.7 (5.0, 6.5) | 0.0003 |
ED4 (kJ/g·day) | 6.6 (5.9, 7.7) | 6.4 (5.7, 7.3) | 0.003 |
ED5 (kJ/g·day) | 5.7 (5.1, 6.5) | 5.5 (4.9, 6.3) | 0.0006 |
Family Data | |||
Paternal education level (n, %) 8 | 137 (24.0) | 160 (25.2) | 0.6 |
Maternal education level ( n, %) 8 | 100 (17.5) | 132 (20.8) | 0.2 |
Paternal BMI (kg/m2) | 23.1 ± 2.7 | 23.4 ± 2.9 | 0.8 |
Paternal overweight ( n, %) 9 | 221 (38.6) | 246 (38.7) | 0.9 |
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | 21.8 ± 2.7 | 21.9 ± 3.0 | 0.8 |
Maternal overweight ( n, %) 9 | 112 (19.6) | 132 (20.8) | 0.6 |
Smoking in the house ( n, %) 10 | 384 (67.1) | 420 (66.1) | 0.7 |
Total Energy Intake 2 | p for | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T3 | Trend 3 | |
Boys n = 572 | 190 | 191 | 191 | |
BMI z-scores | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.1 (−0.0, 0.3) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.4) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) | 0.02 |
Adjusted 4 | −0.0 (−0.2, 0.2) | 0.2 (−0.0, 0.4) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.6) | 0.003 |
%BF | ||||
Unadjusted | 15.6 (14.4, 16.8) | 17.8 (16.6, 19.0) | 18.1 (16.9, 19.3) | 0.01 |
Adjusted 5 | 16.2 (14.3, 18.1) | 17.6 (15.6, 19.6) | 17.9 (15.9, 19.9) | 0.04 |
FMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 3.1 (2.8, 3.3) | 3.3 (3.0, 3.5) | 3.6 (3.4, 3.8) | 0.001 |
Adjusted 5 | 3.3 (2.9, 3.6) | 3.3 (3.0, 3.7) | 3.7 (3.3, 4.0) | 0.01 |
FFMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 14.1 (13.8, 14.5) | 14.4 (14.1, 14.8) | 14.7 (14.4, 15.1) | 0.03 |
Adjusted 5 | 14.0 (13.5, 14.6) | 14.4 (13.8, 14.9) | 14.4 (13.8, 14.9) | 0.4 |
WHR | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.85 (0.84, 0.86) | 0.86 (0.85, 0.87) | 0.86 (0.85, 0.86) | 0.7 |
Adjusted4 | 0.84 (0.83, 0.85) | 0.85 (0.84, 0.87) | 0.85 (0.84, 0.86) | 0.3 |
Girls n = 635 | 211 | 212 | 212 | |
BMI z-scores | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.3 (0.2, 0.4) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) | 0.5 (0.4, 0.6) | 0.2 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.3 (0.1, 0.5) | 0.4 (0.1, 0.6) | 0.5 (0.2, 0.7) | 0.3 |
%BF | ||||
Unadjusted | 19.2 (18.3, 20.1) | 20.2 (19.3, 21.1) | 20.5 (19.6, 21.4) | 0.4 |
Adjusted 5 | 19.6 (18.3, 21.0) | 20.0 (18.7, 21.4) | 20.1 (18.7, 21.5) | 0.8 |
FMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 3.4 (3.2, 3.6) | 3.5 (3.3, 3.7) | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 0.6 |
Adjusted 5 | 3.3 (3.0, 3.6) | 3.3 (3.0, 3.6) | 3.1 (2.7, 3.4) | 0.2 |
FFMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 13.8 (13.5, 14.1) | 14.1 (13.8, 14.4) | 14.5 (14.2, 14.9) | 0.1 |
Adjusted 5 | 14.0 (13.5, 14.5) | 14.1 (13.6, 14.6) | 14.5 (14.0, 15.0) | 0.3 |
WHR | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.82 (0.82, 0.83) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.2 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.82 (0.81, 0.83) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.2 |
ED of All Solid Foods and Drinks 2 | p for | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T3 | Trend 3 | |
Boys n = 572 | 190 | 191 | 191 | |
BMI z-scores | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.3 (0.1, 0.4) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.4) | 0.2 (0.1, 0.4) | 0.9 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.2 (−0.1, 0.4) | 0.2 (−0.1, 0.4) | 0.1 (−0.1, 0.3) | 0.9 |
%BF | ||||
Unadjusted | 17.4 (16.2, 18.6) | 17.4 (16.2, 18.6) | 16.6 (15.4, 17.9) | 0.7 |
Adjusted 5 | 17.2 (15.2, 19.2) | 17.3 (15.4, 19.2) | 16.7 (14.8, 18.7) | 0.9 |
FMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 3.2 (3.0, 3.4) | 3.4 (3.1, 3.6) | 3.4 (3.1, 3.6) | 0.2 |
Adjusted 5 | 3.3 (2.9, 3.7) | 3.4 (3.1, 3.8) | 3.5 (3.1, 3.8) | 0.2 |
FFMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 14.7 (14.3, 15.0) | 14.5 (14.2, 14.9) | 14.3 (14.0, 14.7) | 0.4 |
Adjusted 5 | 14.4 (13.8, 14.9) | 14.3 (13.7, 14.8) | 14.1 (13.5, 14.6) | 0.4 |
WHR | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.86 (0.85, 0.86) | 0.85 (0.85, 0.86) | 0.85 (0.85, 0.86) | 0.4 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.85 (0.83, 0.86) | 0.85 (0.83, 0.86) | 0.84 (0.83, 0.86) | 0.4 |
Girls n = 635 | 211 | 212 | 212 | |
BMI z-scores | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.3 (0.2, 0.5) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) | 0.5 (0.4, 0.6) | 0.5 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.3 (0.1, 0.5) | 0.4 (0.1, 0.6) | 0.5 (0.3, 0.7) | 0.3 |
%BF | ||||
Unadjusted | 19.6 (18.7, 20.6) | 19.8 (18.9, 20.7) | 20.5 (19.6, 21.4) | 0.5 |
Adjusted 5 | 19.5 (18.2, 20.8) | 19.7 (18.4, 21.1) | 20.6 (19.2, 22.0) | 0.4 |
FMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 3.4 (3.2, 3.6) | 3.4 (3.2, 3.6) | 3.5 (3.3, 3.7) | 0.9 |
Adjusted 5 | 3.2 (2.9, 3.5) | 3.2 (2.9, 3.5) | 3.3 (3.0, 3.6) | 0.9 |
FFMI | ||||
Unadjusted | 14.0 (13.6, 14.3) | 14.1 (13.8, 14.4) | 14.3 (14.0, 14.6) | 0.3 |
Adjusted 5 | 14.0 (13.5, 14.5) | 14.2 (13.7, 14.7) | 14.4 (13.9, 14.9) | 0.2 |
WHR | ||||
Unadjusted | 0.83 (0.83, 0.84) | 0.82 (0.82, 0.83) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.83) | 0.06 |
Adjusted 4 | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.82 (0.81, 0.84) | 0.83 (0.82, 0.84) | 0.2 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ogden, C.L.; Carroll, M.D.; Kit, B.K.; Flegal, K.M. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA 2012, 307, 483–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ji, C.Y.; Chen, T.J. Empirical changes in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Chinese students from 1985 to 2010 and corresponding preventive strategies. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2013, 26, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Liu, L.L.; Lawrence, J.M.; Davis, C.; Liese, A.D.; Pettitt, D.J.; Pihoker, C.; Dabelea, D.; Hamman, R.; Waitzfelder, B.; Kahn, H.S. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in youth with diabetes in USA: The search for diabetes in youth study. Pediatr. Diabetes 2010, 11, 4–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rocchini, A.P. Childhood obesity and coronary heart disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 1927–1929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Virdis, A.; Ghiadoni, L.; Masi, S.; Versari, D.; Daghini, E.; Giannarelli, C.; Salvetti, A.; Taddei, S. Obesity in the childhood: A link to adult hypertension. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2009, 15, 1063–1071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cote, A.T.; Harris, K.C.; Panagiotopoulos, C.; Sandor, G.G.; Devlin, A.M. Childhood obesity and cardiovascular dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2013, 62, 1309–1319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weiss, R.; Caprio, S. The metabolic consequences of childhood obesity. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 19, 405–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cheng, G.; Karaolis-Danckert, N.; Libuda, L.; Bolzenius, K.; Remer, T.; Buyken, A.E. Relation of dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and fiber and whole-grain intakes during puberty to the concurrent development of percent body fat and body mass index. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2009, 169, 667–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hebestreit, A.; Bornhorst, C.; Barba, G.; Siani, A.; Huybrechts, I.; Tognon, G.; Eiben, G.; Moreno, L.A.; Fernandez Alvira, J.M.; Loit, H.M.; et al. Associations between energy intake, daily food intake and energy density of foods and BMI z-score in 2–9-year-old European children. Eur. J. Nutr. 2014, 53, 673–681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huang, T.T.; Howarth, N.C.; Lin, B.H.; Roberts, S.B.; McCrory, M.A. Energy intake and meal portions: Associations with BMI percentile in U.S. Children. Obes Res. 2004, 12, 1875–1885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Elliott, S.A.; Truby, H.; Lee, A.; Harper, C.; Abbott, R.A.; Davies, P.S. Associations of body mass index and waist circumference with: Energy intake and percentage energy from macronutrients, in a cohort of Australian children. Nutr. J. 2011, 10, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dubois, L.; Carter, M.A.; Farmer, A.; Girard, M.; Burnier, D.; Tatone-Tokuda, F.; Porcherie, M. Higher intakes of energy and grain products at 4 years of age are associated with being overweight at 6 years of age. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 2024–2029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maffeis, C.; Talamini, G.; Tato, L. Influence of diet, physical activity and parents’ obesity on children’s adiposity: A four-year longitudinal study. Int J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 1998, 22, 758–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lin, M.; Pan, L.; Tang, L.; Jiang, J.; Wang, Y.; Jin, R. Association of eating speed and energy intake of main meals with overweight in Chinese pre-school children. Public Health Nutr. 2013, 17, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Piernas, C.; Popkin, B.M. Food portion patterns and trends among U.S. children and the relationship to total eating occasion size, 1977–2006. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 1159–1164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prentice, A.M.; Jebb, S.A. Fast foods, energy density and obesity: A possible mechanistic link. Obes Rev. 2003, 4, 187–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ledikwe, J.H.; Blanck, H.M.; Kettel Khan, L.; Serdula, M.K.; Seymour, J.D.; Tohill, B.C.; Rolls, B.J. Dietary energy density is associated with energy intake and weight status in U.S. adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1362–1368. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Howarth, N.C.; Murphy, S.P.; Wilkens, L.R.; Hankin, J.H.; Kolonel, L.N. Dietary energy density is associated with overweight status among 5 ethnic groups in the multiethnic cohort study. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 2243–2248. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- WHO; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases-Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation; WHO: Geneva, 2003; 0512-3054. [Google Scholar]
- Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Report of the DGAC on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans,2010. Available online: http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/2010DGACReport-camera-ready-Jan11-11.pdf (accessed on 28 May 2010).
- Barlow, S.E. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: Summary report. Pediatrics 2007, 120, S164–S192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mendoza, J.A.; Drewnowski, A.; Cheadle, A.; Christakis, D.A. Dietary energy density is associated with selected predictors of obesity in U.S. children. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 1318–1322. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Vernarelli, J.A.; Mitchell, D.C.; Hartman, T.J.; Rolls, B.J. Dietary energy density is associated with body weight status and vegetable intake in U.S. children. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 2204–2210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cheng, G.; Gerlach, S.; Libuda, L.; Kranz, S.; Gunther, A.L.; Karaolis-Danckert, N.; Kroke, A.; Buyken, A.E. Diet quality in childhood is prospectively associated with the timing of puberty but not with body composition at puberty onset. J. Nutr. 2010, 140, 95–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Murakami, K.; Miyake, Y.; Sasaki, S.; Tanaka, K.; Arakawa, M. An energy-dense diet is cross-sectionally associated with an increased risk of overweight in male children, but not in female children, male adolescents, or female adolescents in Japan: The Ryukyus child health study. Nutr. Res. 2012, 32, 486–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnson, L.; van Jaarsveld, C.H.; Emmett, P.M.; Rogers, I.S.; Ness, A.R.; Hattersley, A.T.; Timpson, N.J.; Smith, G.D.; Jebb, S.A. Dietary energy density affects fat mass in early adolescence and is not modified by FTO variants. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, e4594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Johnson, L.; Mander, A.P.; Jones, L.R.; Emmett, P.M.; Jebb, S.A. Energy-dense, low-fiber, high-fat dietary pattern is associated with increased fatness in childhood. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 846–854. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Johnson, L.; Mander, A.P.; Jones, L.R.; Emmett, P.M.; Jebb, S.A. A prospective analysis of dietary energy density at age 5 and 7 years and fatness at 9 years among UK children. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 2008, 32, 586–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kring, S.I.; Heitmann, B.L. Fiber intake, not dietary energy density, is associated with subsequent change in BMI z-score among sub-groups of children. Obes. Facts 2008, 1, 331–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gunther, A.L.; Stahl, L.J.; Buyken, A.E.; Kroke, A. Association of dietary energy density in childhood with age and body fatness at the onset of the pubertal growth spurt. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 106, 345–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Phillips, S.M.; Bandini, L.G.; Naumova, E.N.; Cyr, H.; Colclough, S.; Dietz, W.H.; Must, A. Energy-dense snack food intake in adolescence: Longitudinal relationship to weight and fatness. Obes. Res. 2004, 12, 461–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kral, T.V.; Berkowitz, R.I.; Stunkard, A.J.; Stallings, V.A.; Brown, D.D.; Faith, M.S. Dietary energy density increases during early childhood irrespective of familial predisposition to obesity: Results from a prospective cohort study. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 2007, 31, 1061–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Butte, N.F.; Cai, G.; Cole, S.A.; Wilson, T.A.; Fisher, J.O.; Zakeri, I.F.; Ellis, K.J.; Comuzzie, A.G. Metabolic and behavioral predictors of weight gain in Hispanic children: The Viva La familia study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 1478–1485. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- McCaffrey, T.A.; Rennie, K.L.; Kerr, M.A.; Wallace, J.M.; Hannon-Fletcher, M.P.; Coward, W.A.; Jebb, S.A.; Livingstone, M.B. Energy density of the diet and change in body fatness from childhood to adolescence; is there a relation? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1230–1237. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Lioret, S.; Touvier, M.; Balin, M.; Huybrechts, I.; Dubuisson, C.; Dufour, A.; Bertin, M.; Maire, B.; Lafay, L. Characteristics of energy under-reporting in children and adolescents. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 105, 1671–1680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ledikwe, J.H.; Blanck, H.M.; Khan, L.K.; Serdula, M.K.; Seymour, J.D.; Tohill, B.C.; Rolls, B.J. Dietary energy density determined by eight calculation methods in a nationally representative United States population. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 273–278. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Wang, Z.; Zhai, F.; Zhang, B.; Popkin, B.M. Trends in Chinese snacking behaviors and patterns and the social-demographic role between 1991 and 2009. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 21, 253–262. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Yuexin, Y.; Yaguang, W. China Food Composition, 2rd ed.; Peking University Medical Press: Beijing, China, 2009; pp. 3–191. [Google Scholar]
- Ainsworth, B.E.; Haskell, W.L.; Whitt, M.C.; Irwin, M.L.; Swartz, A.M.; Strath, S.J.; O’Brien, W.L.; Bassett, D.R., Jr.; Schmitz, K.H.; Emplaincourt, P.O.; et al. Compendium of physical activities: An update of activity codes and MET intensities. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2000, 32, S498–S504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Torun, B. Energy requirements of children and adolescents. Public Health Nutr. 2005, 8, 968–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Black, A.E.; Cole, T.J. Within- and between-subject variation in energy expenditure measured by the doubly-labelled water technique: Implications for validating reported dietary energy intake. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 54, 386–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Livingstone, M.B.; Robson, P.J.; Wallace, J.M. Issues in dietary intake assessment of children and adolescents. Br. J. Nutr. 2004, 92, S213–S222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cox, D.N.; Mela, D.J. Determination of energy density of freely selected diets: Methodological issues and implications. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2000, 24, 49–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yao, M.; Roberts, S.B. Dietary energy density and weight regulation. Nutr. Rev. 2001, 59, 247–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Drewnowski, A.; Almiron-Roig, E.; Marmonier, C.; Lluch, A. Dietary energy density and body weight: Is there a relationship? Nutr. Rev. 2004, 62, 403–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grunwald, G.K.; Seagle, H.M.; Peters, J.C.; Hill, J.O. Quantifying and separating the effects of macronutrient composition and non-macronutrients on energy density. Br. J. Nutr. 2001, 86, 265–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zizza, C.; Siega-Riz, A.M.; Popkin, B.M. Significant increase in young adults’ snacking between 1977–1978 and 1994–1996 represents a cause for concern! Prev. Med. 2001, 32, 303–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lohman, T.G.; Roche, A.F.; Martorell, R. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual; Human Kinetics Europe Ltd.: Champaign, IL, USA, 1988; pp. 3–8, 43–44. [Google Scholar]
- Cole, T.J.; Bellizzi, M.C.; Flegal, K.M.; Dietz, W.H. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: International survey. BMJ 2000, 320, 1240–1243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, H.; Ji, C.Y.; Zong, X.N.; Zhang, Y.Q. Body mass index growth curves for Chinese children and adolescents aged 0 to 18 years. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2009, 47, 493–498. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Working Group on Obesity in China. Body mass index reference norm for screening overweight and obesity in Chinese children and adolescents. Chin. J. Epidemiol. 2004, 25, 97–102. [Google Scholar]
- Slaughter, M.H.; Lohman, T.G.; Boileau, R.A.; Horswill, C.A.; Stillman, R.J.; Van Loan, M.D.; Bemben, D.A. Skinfold equations for estimation of body fatness in children and youth. Hum. Biol. 1988, 60, 709–723. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Cole, T.J.; Fewtrell, M.S.; Prentice, A. The fallacy of using percentage body fat as a measure of adiposity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1959–1960. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Maynard, L.M.; Wisemandle, W.; Roche, A.F.; Chumlea, W.C.; Guo, S.S.; Siervogel, R.M. Childhood body composition in relation to body mass index. Pediatrics 2001, 107, 344–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De Ridder, C.M.; Bruning, P.F.; Zonderland, M.L.; Thijssen, J.H.; Bonfrer, J.M.; Blankenstein, M.A.; Huisveld, I.A.; Erich, W.B. Body fat mass, body fat distribution, and plasma hormones in early puberty in females. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1990, 70, 888–893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, H.; Zong, X.N.; Ji, C.Y.; Mi, J. Body mass index cut-offs for overweight and obesity in Chinese children and adolescents aged 2–18 years. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2010, 31, 616–620. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Working Group on Obesity in China. Body mass index reference norm in Chinese adults. Chin. J. Prev. Med. 2001, 35, 349–350. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, X.; Yao, S.; Sun, G.; Yu, S.; Sun, Z.; Zheng, L.; Xu, C.; Li, J.; Sun, Y. Total and abdominal obesity among rural Chinese women and the association with hypertension. Nutrition 2012, 28, 46–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leahy, K.E.; Birch, L.L.; Rolls, B.J. Reducing the energy density of an entree decreases children’s energy intake at lunch. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2008, 108, 41–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leahy, K.E.; Birch, L.L.; Fisher, J.O.; Rolls, B.J. Reductions in entree energy density increase children’s vegetable intake and reduce energy intake. Obes. Silver Spring 2008, 16, 1559–1565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goran, M.I. Measurement issues related to studies of childhood obesity: Assessment of body composition, body fat distribution, physical activity, and food intake. Pediatrics 1998, 101, 505–518. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Ovaskainen, M.L.; Reinivuo, H.; Tapanainen, H.; Hannila, M.L.; Korhonen, T.; Pakkala, H. Snacks as an element of energy intake and food consumption. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 60, 494–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhou, X.; Xue, H.; Duan, R.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Harvey, L.; Cheng, G. The Cross-Sectional Association of Energy Intake and Dietary Energy Density with Body Composition of Children in Southwest China. Nutrients 2015, 7, 5396-5412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7075228
Zhou X, Xue H, Duan R, Liu Y, Zhang L, Harvey L, Cheng G. The Cross-Sectional Association of Energy Intake and Dietary Energy Density with Body Composition of Children in Southwest China. Nutrients. 2015; 7(7):5396-5412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7075228
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Xue, Hongmei Xue, Ruonan Duan, Yan Liu, Lishi Zhang, Louise Harvey, and Guo Cheng. 2015. "The Cross-Sectional Association of Energy Intake and Dietary Energy Density with Body Composition of Children in Southwest China" Nutrients 7, no. 7: 5396-5412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7075228