Food Addiction in the Light of DSM-5
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Parallels between Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) Substance Dependence Criteria and Overeating
3. Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS)
4. Substance Dependence Criteria in DSM-5
5. Parallels between New DSM-5 Criteria and Overeating
5.1. Craving
5.2. Failure to Fulfill Major Role Obligations
Food | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caffeine | Cannabis | Hallucinogens/Phencyclidine | Inhalants | Opioids | Sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics | Stimulants | Tobacco | ||||
Substance Use Disorder Criteria * | Possible Food Addiction Equivalents | Comment | |||||||||
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Empirically supported |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Empirically supported |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Empirically supported |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible in the context of an acute health condition, but less likely to be relevant |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Empirically supported |
| √ | × | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible |
|
| ||||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| √ | √ | √ | × | × | √ | √ | √ | √ |
| Plausible, but hard to distinguish from energy deficit |
|
| ||||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
Intoxication | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | × | × | No intoxication |
5.3. Social or Interpersonal Problems
5.4. Use in Physically Hazardous Situations
6. Gambling Disorder and Overeating
Gambling Disorder * | ||
---|---|---|
|
| Plausible, but not applicable when referring to excitement |
|
| Plausible, but hard to distinguish from energy deficit |
|
| Empirically supported |
|
| Empirically supported |
|
| Empirically supported |
|
| Not applicable |
|
| Plausible |
|
| Plausible |
|
| Plausible, but unusual |
7. Implications of the Research Domain Criteria for Food Addiction Research
8. Implications of the Revised Criteria for Food Addiction Research
8.1. Is Food Addiction an SUD or Behavioral Addiction?
8.2. Will Using the New SUD Criteria Increase or Decrease the Prevalence of Food Addiction?
8.3. Is a Revision of the YFAS Necessary?
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Randolph, T.G. The descriptive features of food addiction: Addictive eating and drinking. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol 1956, 17, 198–224. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Hetherington, M.M.; Macdiarmid, J.I. “Chocolate addiction”: A preliminary study of its description and its relationship to problem eating. Appetite 1993, 21, 233–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rogers, P.J.; Smit, H.J. Food craving and food “addiction”: A critical review of the evidence from a biopsychosocial perspective. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2000, 66, 3–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Swanson, D.W.; Dinello, F.A. Follow-up of patients starved for obesity. Psychosom. Med. 1970, 32, 209–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Szmukler, G.I.; Tantam, D. Anorexia nervosa: Starvation dependence. Br. J. Med. Psychol. 1984, 57, 303–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vandereycken, W. The addiction model in eating disorders: Some critical remarks and a selected bibliography. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 1990, 9, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, G.T. The addiction model of eating disorders: A critical analysis. Adv. Behav. Res. Ther. 1991, 13, 27–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Silva, P.; Eysenck, S. Personality and addictiveness in anorexic and bulimic patients. Personal. Individ. Differ. 1987, 8, 749–751. [Google Scholar]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; Davis, C.; Kuschner, R.; Brownell, K.D. The addiction potential of hyperpalatable foods. Curr. Drug Abus. Rev. 2011, 4, 140–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schienle, A.; Schäfer, A.; Hermann, A.; Vaitl, D. Binge-eating disorder: Reward sensitivity and brain activation to images of food. Biol. Psychiatry 2009, 65, 654–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, G.J.; Volkow, N.D.; Logan, J.; Pappas, N.R.; Wong, C.T.; Zhu, W.; Netusil, N.; Fowler, J.S. Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 2001, 357, 354–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avena, N.M.; Rada, P.; Hoebel, B.G. Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32, 20–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ahmed, S.H.; Guillem, K.; Vandaele, Y. Sugar addiction: Pushing the drug-sugar analogy to the limit. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2013, 16, 434–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avena, N.M.; Gold, J.A.; Kroll, C.; Gold, M.S. Further developments in the neurobiology of food and addiction: Update on the state of the science. Nutrition 2012, 28, 341–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tang, D.W.; Fellows, L.K.; Small, D.M.; Dagher, A. Food and drug cues activate similar brain regions: A meta-analysis of functional mri studies. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 106, 317–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.-J.; Tomasi, D.; Baler, R.D. The addictive dimensionality of obesity. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 73, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.-J.; Tomasi, D.; Baler, R.D. Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps. Obes. Rev. 2013, 14, 2–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Albayrak, O.; Wölfle, S.M.; Hebebrand, J. Does food addiction exist? A phenomenological discussion based on the psychiatric classification of substance-related disorders and addiction. Obes. Facts 2012, 5, 165–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Allen, P.J.; Batra, P.; Geiger, B.M.; Wommack, T.; Gilhooly, C.; Pothos, E.N. Rationale and consequences of reclassifying obesity as an addictive disorder: Neurobiology, food environment and social policy perspectives. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 107, 126–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barry, D.; Clarke, M.; Petry, N.M. Obesity and its relationship to addictions: Is overeating a form of addictive behavior? Am. J. Addict. 2009, 18, 439–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corsica, J.A.; Pelchat, M.L. Food addiction: True or false? Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2010, 26, 165–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, C. Compulsive overeating as an addictive behavior: Overlap between food addiction and binge eating disorder. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2013, 2, 171–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, C.; Carter, J.C. Compulsive overeating as an addiction disorder. A review of theory and evidence. Appetite 2009, 53, 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Drewnowski, A.; Bellisle, F. Is sweetness addictive? Nutr. Bull. 2007, 32, 52–60. [Google Scholar]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; Corbin, W.R.; Brownell, K.D. Food addiction—An examination of the diagnostic criteria for dependence. J. Addict. Med. 2009, 3, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ifland, J.R.; Preuss, H.G.; Marcus, M.T.; Rourk, K.M.; Taylor, W.C.; Burau, K.; Jacobs, W.S.; Kadish, W.; Manso, G. Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder. Med. Hypotheses 2009, 72, 518–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pelchat, M.L. Food addiction in humans. J. Nutr. 2009, 139, 620–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Umberg, E.N.; Shader, R.I.; Hsu, L.K.; Greenblatt, D.J. From disordered eating to addiction: The “food drug” in bulimia nervosa. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2012, 32, 376–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wilson, G.T. Eating disorders, obesity and addiction. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. 2010, 18, 341–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avena, N.M.; Gearhardt, A.N.; Gold, M.S.; Wang, G.-J.; Potenza, M.N. Tossing the baby out with the bathwater after a brief rinse? The potential downside of dismissing food addiction based on limited data. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 13, 514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meule, A.; Kübler, A. The translation of substance dependence criteria to food-related behaviors: Different views and interpretations. Front. Psychiatry 2012, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ziauddeen, H.; Farooqi, I.S.; Fletcher, P.C. Obesity and the brain: How convincing is the addiction model? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 13, 279–286. [Google Scholar]
- Ziauddeen, H.; Farooqi, I.S.; Fletcher, P.C. Food addiction: Is there a baby in the bathwater? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 13, 514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meule, A. Are certain foods addictive? Front. Psychiatry 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cassin, S.E.; von Ranson, K.M. Is binge eating experienced as an addiction? Appetite 2007, 49, 687–690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; Corbin, W.R.; Brownell, K.D. Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite 2009, 52, 430–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meule, A.; Gearhardt, A.N. Five years of the Yale Food Addiction Scale: Taking stock and moving forward. Curr. Addict. Rep. 2014, 1, 193–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meule, A.; Vögele, C.; Kübler, A. German translation and validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Diagnostica 2012, 58, 115–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pedram, P.; Wadden, D.; Amini, P.; Gulliver, W.; Randell, E.; Cahill, F.; Vasdev, S.; Goodridge, A.; Carter, J.C.; Zhai, G.; et al. Food addiction: Its prevalence and significant association with obesity in the general population. PLoS One 2013, 8, e74832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mason, S.M.; Flint, A.J.; Field, A.E.; Austin, S.B.; Rich-Edwards, J.W. Abuse victimization in childhood or adolescence and risk of food addiction in adult women. Obesity 2013, 21, E775–E781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Flint, A.J.; Gearhardt, A.N.; Corbin, W.R.; Brownell, K.D.; Field, A.E.; Rimm, E.B. Food addiction scale measurement in 2 cohorts of middle-aged and older women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 99, 578–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Burmeister, J.M.; Hinman, N.; Koball, A.; Hoffmann, D.A.; Carels, R.A. Food addiction in adults seeking weight loss treatment. Implications for psychosocial health and weight loss. Appetite 2013, 60, 103–110. [Google Scholar]
- Davis, C.; Curtis, C.; Levitan, R.D.; Carter, J.C.; Kaplan, A.S.; Kennedy, J.L. Evidence that “food addiction” is a valid phenotype of obesity. Appetite 2011, 57, 711–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davis, C.; Loxton, N.J.; Levitan, R.D.; Kaplan, A.S.; Carter, J.C.; Kennedy, J.L. “Food addiction” and its association with a dopaminergic multilocus genetic profile. Physiol. Behav. 2013, 118, 63–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eichen, D.M.; Lent, M.R.; Goldbacher, E.; Foster, G.D. Exploration of “food addiction” in overweight and obese treatment-seeking adults. Appetite 2013, 67, 22–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lent, M.R.; Eichen, D.M.; Goldbacher, E.; Wadden, T.A.; Foster, G.D. Relationship of food addiction to weight loss and attrition during obesity treatment. Obesity 2014, 22, 52–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; White, M.A.; Masheb, R.M.; Grilo, C.M. An examination of food addiction in a racially diverse sample of obese patients with binge eating disorder in primary care settings. Compr. Psychiatry 2013, 54, 500–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; White, M.A.; Masheb, R.M.; Morgan, P.T.; Crosby, R.D.; Grilo, C.M. An examination of the food addiction construct in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2012, 45, 657–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meule, A.; Heckel, D.; Kübler, A. Factor structure and item analysis of the Yale Food Addiction Scale in obese candidates for bariatric surgery. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. 2012, 20, 419–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clark, S.M.; Saules, K.K. Validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale among a weight-loss surgery population. Eat. Behav. 2013, 14, 216–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gearhardt, A.N.; Corbin, W.R.; Brownell, K.D. Instruction sheet for the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Available online: http://www.yaleruddcenter.org/resources/upload/docs/what/addiction/FoodAddictionScaleInstructions09.pdf (accessed on 5 September 2014).
- Meule, A.; Hermann, T.; Kübler, A. Food addiction in overweight and obese adolescents seeking weight-loss treatment. Adipositas 2013, 7, A48. [Google Scholar]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Tiffany, S.T.; Wray, J.M. The clinical significance of drug craving. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2012, 1248, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hormes, J.M.; Rozin, P. Does “craving” carve nature at the joints? Absence of a synonym for craving in many languages. Addict. Behav. 2010, 35, 459–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weingarten, H.P.; Elston, D. Food cravings in a college population. Appetite 1991, 17, 167–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Komatsu, S. Rice and sushi cravings: A preliminary study of food craving among Japanese females. Appetite 2008, 50, 353–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kühn, S.; Gallinat, J. Common biology of craving across legal and illegal drugs—A quantitative meta-analysis of cue-reactivity brain response. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2011, 33, 1318–1326. [Google Scholar]
- Naqvi, N.H.; Bechara, A. The hidden island of addiction: The insula. Trends Neurosci. 2009, 32, 56–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pelchat, M.L.; Johnson, A.; Chan, R.; Valdez, J.; Ragland, J.D. Images of desire: Food-craving activation during fmri. NeuroImage 2004, 23, 1486–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van den Eynde, F.; Koskina, A.; Syrad, H.; Guillaume, S.; Broadbent, H.; Campbell, I.C.; Schmidt, U. State and trait food craving in people with bulimic eating disorders. Eat. Behav. 2012, 13, 414–417. [Google Scholar]
- Abilés, V.; Rodríguez-Ruiz, S.; Abilés, J.; Mellado, C.; García, A.; Pérez de la Cruz, A.; Fernández-Santaella, M.C. Psychological characteristics of morbidly obese candidates for bariatric surgery. Obes. Surg 2010, 20, 161–167. [Google Scholar]
- Meule, A.; Kübler, A. Food cravings in food addiction: The distinct role of positive reinforcement. Eat. Behav. 2012, 13, 252–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anderson, K.; Rieger, E.; Caterson, I. A comparison of maladaptive schemata in treatment-seeking obese adults and normal-weight control subjects. J. Psychosom. Res. 2006, 60, 245–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lo Coco, G.; Gullo, S.; Salerno, L.; Iacoponelli, R. The association among interpersonal problems, binge behaviors, and self-esteem, in the assessment of obese individuals. Compr. Psychiatry 2011, 52, 164–170. [Google Scholar]
- Fassino, S.; Leombruni, P.; Piero, A.; Abbate-Daga, G.; Rovera, G.G. Mood, eating attitudes, and anger in obese women with and without binge eating disorder. J. Psychosom. Res. 2003, 54, 559–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ansell, E.B.; Grilo, C.M.; White, M.A. Examining the interpersonal model of binge eating and loss of control over eating in women. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2012, 45, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Blomquist, K.K.; Ansell, E.B.; White, M.A.; Masheb, R.M.; Grilo, C.M. Interpersonal problems and developmental trajectories of binge eating disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 2012, 53, 1088–1095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hilbert, A.; Bishop, M.E.; Stein, R.I.; Tanofsky-Kraff, M.; Swenson, A.K.; Welch, R.R.; Wilfley, D.E. Long-term efficacy of psychological treatments for binge eating disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 2012, 200, 232–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wilson, G.T.; Wilfley, D.E.; Agras, W.S.; Bryson, S.W. Psychological treatments of binge eating disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2010, 67, 94–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alosco, M.L.; Spitznagel, M.B.; Fischer, K.H.; Miller, L.A.; Pillai, V.; Hughes, J.; Gunstad, J. Both texting and eating are associated with impaired simulated driving performance. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2012, 13, 468–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stutts, J.; Feaganes, J.; Reinfurt, D.; Rodgman, E.; Hamlett, C.; Gish, K.; Staplin, L. Driver’s exposure to distractions in their natural driving environment. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2005, 37, 1093–1101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Young, M.S.; Mahfoud, J.M.; Walker, G.H.; Jenkins, D.P.; Stanton, N.A. Crash dieting: The effects of eating and drinking on driving performance. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2008, 40, 142–148. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Meule, A.; Heckel, D.; Jurowich, C.F.; Vögele, C.; Kübler, A. Correlates of food addiction in obese individuals seeking bariatric surgery. Clin. Obes. 2014, 4, 228–236. [Google Scholar]
- Goss, K.; Allan, S. Shame, pride and eating disorders. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 2009, 16, 303–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Giel, K.E.; Zipfel, S.; Alizadeh, M.; Schaffeler, N.; Zahn, C.; Wessel, D.; Hesse, F.W.; Thiel, S.; Thiel, A. Stigmatization of obese individuals by human resource professionals: An experimental study. BMC Public Health 2012, 12, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Agras, W.S. The consequences and costs of the eating disorders. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 2001, 24, 371–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, J.G.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.W. Health problems, impairment and illnesses associated with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder among primary care and obstetric gynaecology patients. Psychol. Med. 2001, 31, 1455–1466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cuthbert, B.N.; Insel, T.R. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: The seven pillars of rdoc. BMC Med. 2013, 11, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Insel, T.R.; Cuthbert, B.N.; Garvey, M.A.; Heinssen, R.K.; Pine, D.S.; Quinn, K.J.; Sanislow, C.A.; Wang, P.S. Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167, 748–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sanislow, C.A.; Pine, D.S.; Quinn, K.J.; Kozak, M.J.; Garvey, M.A.; Heinssen, R.K.; Wang, P.S.-E.; Cuthbert, B.N. Developing constructs for psychopathology research: Research domain criteria. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2010, 119, 631–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Balodis, I.M.; Molina, N.D.; Kober, H.; Worhunsky, P.D.; White, M.A.; Sinha, R.; Grilo, C.M.; Potenza, M.N. Divergent neural substrates of inhibitory control in binge eating disorder relative to other manifestations of obesity. Obesity 2013, 21, 367–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stice, E.; Agras, W.S.; Telch, C.F.; Halmi, K.A.; Mitchell, J.E.; Wilson, T. Subtyping binge eating-disordered women along dieting and negative affect dimensions. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2001, 30, 11–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grilo, C.M.; Masheb, R.M.; Wilson, G.T. Subtyping binge eating disorder. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2001, 69, 1066–1072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volkow, N.D.; Li, T.-K. The neuroscience of addiction. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8, 1429–1430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avena, N.M.; Rada, P.; Hoebel, B.G. Sugar and fat bingeing have notable differences in addictive-like behavior. J. Nutr. 2009, 139, 623–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Berridge, K.C.; Ho, C.-Y.; Richard, J.M.; DiFeliceantonio, A.G. The tempted brain eats: Pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders. Brain Res. 2010, 1350, 43–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, P.M.; Kenny, P.J. Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13, 635–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Curtis, C.; Davis, C. A qualitative study of binge eating and obesity from an addiction perspective. Eat. Disord. 2014, 22, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meule, A. How prevalent is “food addiction”? Front. Psychiatry 2011, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meule, A. Food addiction and body-mass-index: A non-linear relationship. Med. Hypotheses 2012, 79, 508–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hill, A.J. The psychology of food craving. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2007, 66, 277–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baker, T.B.; Breslau, N.; Covey, L.; Shiffman, S. DSM criteria for tobacco use disorder and tobacco withdrawal: A critique and proposed revisions for DSM-5. Addiction 2012, 107, 263–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Meule, A.; Gearhardt, A.N. Food Addiction in the Light of DSM-5. Nutrients 2014, 6, 3653-3671. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6093653
Meule A, Gearhardt AN. Food Addiction in the Light of DSM-5. Nutrients. 2014; 6(9):3653-3671. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6093653
Chicago/Turabian StyleMeule, Adrian, and Ashley N. Gearhardt. 2014. "Food Addiction in the Light of DSM-5" Nutrients 6, no. 9: 3653-3671. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6093653