Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies
Abstract
1. Background
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Protocol Registration
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Inclusion Criteria
2.4. Exclusion Criteria
2.5. Data Extraction and Quality Assessment
2.6. Eligibility for Synthesis
2.7. Statistical Methods
3. Result
3.1. Research to Determine
3.2. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of MetS
3.3. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of MetS Components
3.3.1. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of Abdominal Obesity
3.3.2. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of Hypertension
3.3.3. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of Hyperglycemia
First Author | Publication Year | Study Design | Country | Male (%) | Age (Years) | Study Objective | Study Population | Outcome (%) | Frequency of Breakfast | OR (95% CI) | Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jung [14] | 2020 | cross-sectional study | Korea | 49.1 | 20–64 | Evaluate the influence of skipping breakfast on the MetS. | 3864 | MetSa: 8.5 | 0 times/week 1–4 times/week 5–7 times/week | 0.68 (0.345–1.351) | 9 |
Kamano [24] | 2021 | cohort study | Japan | 50.06 | 35–69 | Investigate sex-specific associations of skipping breakfast and short sleep duration with MetS and their interaction. | 29,780 | MetSa: 33.1 HTN: 87.5 (M); 87.9 (F) hyperglycemia: 77.7 (M); 69.5 (F) HLP: 68.6 (M); 55.5 (F) | Skipping breakfast | MetSa: 1.20 (1.06–1.35) (M) 0.96 (0.79–1.17) (F) HTN: 1.16(1.03–1.30) (M) 0.88 (0.77–1.00) (F) hyperglycemia: 1.05 (0.94–1.17) (M) 1.12 (0.96–1.30) (F) HLP: 1.18 (1.05–1.32) (M) 0.98 (0.82–1.18) (F) | 9 |
Kutsuma [15] | 2014 | cross-sectional study | South Korea | 62.7 | 20–75 | Assess the association of breakfast skipping with MetS, proteinuria, obesity, and other cardiometabolic risk factors | 54,155 | MetSb: 12.1 | Skipping breakfast | 1.08 (0.99–1.19) (M) 1.04 (0.88–1.23) (F) | 8 |
Kim [13] | 2023 | cross-sectional study | Japan | 53.4 | 18–39 | Assess the association between breakfast frequency and MetS. | 12,302 | MetSb: 2.6 AO: 9.1 HTN: 9.8 hyperglycemia: 10.2 HLP: 8.3 | Non-skipping,4–6 days, and 0–3 days | 1.49 (0.99–2.23) 1.08 (0.84–1.40) 1.34 (1.09–1.65) 1.15 (0.95–1.41) 1.09 (0.87–1.37) | 8 |
Deshmukh-Taskar [23] | 2013 | cross-sectional study | USA | 26.1 | - | Examine the association between breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumed with overweight/obesity, abdominal obesity, other cardiometabolic risk factors and MetS. | 5316 | MetSa: 20.7 AO: 36.8 HTN: 20.3 Hyperglycemia: 21.7 | Skipping breakfast, ready-to-eat cereal | 1.38 (0.94–2.03) 1.12 (0.95–1.38) 1.21 (0.98–1.48) 1.29 (0.95–1.14) | 9 |
Tae Sic Lee [25] | 2016 | cross-sectional study | Korea | 39.4 | 14–68 | Investigate the relationship between the habit of eating breakfast and hypertension. | 3880 | HTN: 25.9 | Skipping breakfast | 1.065 (1.057–1.073) | 7 |
Sung-Eun Park [26] | 2024 | cross-sectional study | Korea | 30.3 | 19–64 | Examine the association of breakfast habits with hypertension and obesity risk. | 2779 | HTN: 13.7 | Regular breakfast, skip breakfast every day | 1.239 (0.995–1.543) (M) 1.625 (1.228–2.148) (F) | 7 |
Gita Shafiee [22] | 2013 | cross-sectional study | Iran | - | 10–18 | Evaluate the association of breakfast intake with cardiometabolic risk factors. | 5625 | MetSb: 5.25 HLP: 9.76 AO: 19.61 HTN: 4.89 Hyperglycemia: 14.02 | None, 1–2 days, 3–6 days, every day | 1.96 (1.18–3.27) 1.41 (1.03–1.93) 1.39 (1.04–1.86) 0.79 (0.54–1.14) 0.83 (0.64–1.08) | 8 |
Fabiana A Silva [27] | 2018 | cross-sectional study | Brazil | - | 7–14 | Investigated the demographic, anthropometric, clinical, biochemical and behavioral factors associated with populations who missed breakfast. | 684 | HLP: 11.4 | Skipping breakfast | 0.79 (0.29–2.15) | 8 |
3.3.4. Association Between Skipping Breakfast and Risk of Hyperlipemia
4. Discussion
4.1. Skipping Breakfast Increase MetS Risk
4.2. Skipping Breakfast and Abdominal Obesity
4.3. Skipping Breakfast Increase Hypertension Risk
4.4. Skipping Breakfast Increase Hyperglycemia Risk
4.5. Breakfast Increase Hyperlipidemia Risk
4.6. Skipping Breakfast vs. Intermittent Fasting
4.7. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Yang, B.; Lian, L.; Xing, K.; Cen, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, Y. Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients 2025, 17, 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17193155
Yang B, Lian L, Xing K, Cen Y, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients. 2025; 17(19):3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17193155
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Bowen, Linxi Lian, Kaijun Xing, Yangyang Cen, Yi Zhao, and Yannan Zhang. 2025. "Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies" Nutrients 17, no. 19: 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17193155
APA StyleYang, B., Lian, L., Xing, K., Cen, Y., Zhao, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025). Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients, 17(19), 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17193155