Maternal Prenatal Factors and Child Adiposity in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Chinese Children at the Age of 2 Years
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Hypertensive Disorders in Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
2.3. Anthropometric Measurements in Children at the Age of 2 Years
2.4. Blood Pressures at the Age of 2 Years
2.5. Assessment of Blood Glucose, Insulin and Lipids at the Age of 2 Years
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Anthropometric Measures and Metabolic Risk Factors in Boys and Girls at the Age of 2 Years
3.2. Child Adiposity Measures and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors at the Age of 2 Years
3.3. Child OWO and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors at the Age of 2 Years
3.4. Maternal Hypertensive Disorders in Pregnancy and GDM in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Children at the Age of 2 Years
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Boys (n = 285) | Girls (n = 264) | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Mothers | |||
Maternal prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2) categories | |||
<18.5 | 47 (16.5) | 41 (15.5) | 0.73 |
18.5–23.9 | 185 (65.1) | 180 (68.2) | |
24–27.9 | 42 (14.8) | 29 (11.0) | |
>28 | 10 (3.5) | 14 (5.3) | |
Gestational Weight Gain | |||
Adequate | 108 (38.3) | 83 (31.6) | 0.48 |
Excessive | 124 (44.0) | 140 (53.2) | |
Inadequate | 50 (17.7) | 40 (15.2) | |
GDM, yes | 36 (12.6) | 33 (12.5) | 0.96 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | |||
none | 258 (90.5) | 252 (95.5) | 0.01 |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 19 (6.7) | 11 (4.2) | |
Preeclampsia | 8 (2.8) | 1 (0.4) | |
Children | |||
Age, months | 23.8 ± 0.6 | 23.8 ± 0.5 | 0.92 |
Birth weight (gram) | 3504.8 ± 403.1 | 3369.6 ± 425.9 | <0.001 |
Gestational age (weeks) | 39.0 ± 1.0 | 39.0 ± 1.0 | 0.55 |
Anthropometric measures | |||
Weight, kg | 13.1 ± 1.4 | 12.5 ± 1.5 | <0.001 |
Length, cm | 89.5 ± 3.1 | 88.1 ± 3.1 | <0.001 |
Head circumference, cm | 49.0 ± 1.3 | 47.9 ± 1.3 | <0.001 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 16.4 ± 1.4 | 16.2 ± 1.4 | 0.02 |
MUAC, cm | 16.0 ± 1.2 | 15.8 ± 1.2 | 0.14 |
Skinfold thickness, mm | |||
Triceps | 9.1 ± 1.8 | 9.4 ± 2.1 | 0.03 |
Subscapular | 6.6 ± 1.7 | 6.9 ± 1.8 | 0.04 |
Abdominal | 6.7 ± 1.9 | 7.2 ± 2.0 | 0.007 |
Sum of three sites | 22.3 ± 4.8 | 23.5 ± 5.3 | 0.009 |
Weight-for-length z-score | 0.44 ± 0.99 | 0.40 ± 0.92 | 0.65 |
Weight-for-age z-score | 0.65 ± 0.92 | 0.65 ± 0.93 | 0.98 |
Length-for-age z-score | 0.61 ± 1.01 | 0.59 ± 0.95 | 0.74 |
BMI-for-age z-score | 0.41 ± 1.01 | 0.43 ± 0.93 | 0.82 |
Head circumference-for-age z-score | 0.57 ± 0.93 | 0.56 ± 0.91 | 0.94 |
Arm circumference-for-age z-score | 0.64 ± 0.98 | 0.72 ± 0.91 | 0.38 |
Subscapular skinfold-for-age z-score | 0.29 ± 1.30 | 0.34 ± 1.20 | 0.59 |
Triceps skinfold-for-age z-score | 0.70 ± 0.94 | 0.76 ± 1.04 | 0.48 |
Weight-for-length z-score | n (%) | ||
<−2 (wasting) | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.4) | 0.91 |
−2 to 2 (normal) | 271 (95.1) | 253 (96.2) | |
>2 to 3 (overweight) | 10 (3.5) | 7 (2.7) | |
>3 (obesity) | 3 (1.1) | 2 (0.8) | |
Length-for-age z-score < −2 (stunting) | 5 (1.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0.06 |
Cardiometabolic risk factors | |||
Glucose, mmol/L | 5.02 ± 0.56 | 4.87 ± 0.61 | 0.01 |
Insulin, pmol/L | 37.80 ± 33.91 | 38.90 ± 32.01 | 0.73 |
log(insulin), pmol/L | 3.26 ± 0.92 | 3.35 ± 0.84 | 0.28 |
TC, mmol/L | 4.12 ± 0.69 | 4.22 ± 0.74 | 0.16 |
Triglycerides, mmol/L | 1.11 ± 0.68 | 1.06 ± 0.55 | 0.40 |
HDL, mmol/L | 1.41 ± 0.35 | 1.37 ± 0.29 | 0.18 |
LDL, mmol/L | 2.31 ± 0.49 | 2.41 ± 0.56 | 0.04 |
SBP, mm Hg | 93.12 ± 8.17 | 91.88 ± 7.60 | 0.10 |
DBP, mm Hg | 61.35 ± 6.24 | 61.29 ± 5.72 | 0.92 |
Child Anthropometric Measures | Child Cardiometabolic Risk Factors | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SBP | DBP | Glucose | log(insulin) | TC | TG | HDL | LDL | |
Boys | ||||||||
Weight (kg) | 0.49 *** | 0.29 *** | −0.08 | 0.16 * | 0.03 | 0.001 | 0.11 | −0.03 |
Length (cm) | 0.23 ** | 0.08 | −0.15 | 0.07 | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.08 | −0.08 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.43 *** | 0.30 *** | 0.02 | 0.15 * | 0.08 | −0.02 | 0.07 | 0.03 |
Length-for-age z-score | 0.24 ** | 0.08 | −0.15 | 0.07 | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.08 | −0.08 |
Weight-for-age z-score | 0.47 *** | 0.27 *** | −0.08 | 0.17 * | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.10 | −0.02 |
Weight-for-length z-score | 0.43 *** | 0.28 *** | −0.0004 | 0.17 * | 0.09 | −0.004 | 0.08 | 0.04 |
BMI-for-age z-score | 0.40 *** | 0.27 *** | 0.02 | 0.16 * | 0.11 | −0.01 | 0.07 | 0.05 |
MUAC (cm) | 0.55 *** | 0.39 *** | −0.03 | 0.05 | 0.05 | −0.004 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
Sum of skinfold thickness at three sites (mm) | 0.46 *** | 0.31 *** | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.08 |
Girls | ||||||||
Weight (kg) | 0.44 *** | 0.32 *** | 0.04 | 0.15 | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.14 | −0.02 |
Length (cm) | 0.26 *** | 0.21 ** | 0.09 | 0.13 | −0.09 | −0.04 | 0.10 | −0.07 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.40 *** | 0.28 *** | −0.03 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.003 | 0.11 | 0.05 |
Length-for-age z-score | 0.26 ** | 0.21 ** | 0.09 | 0.13 | −0.09 | −0.04 | 0.10 | −0.07 |
Weight-for-age z-score | 0.43 *** | 0.30 *** | 0.04 | 0.14 | −0.003 | −0.03 | 0.13 | −0.005 |
Weight-for-length z-score | 0.41 *** | 0.28 *** | −0.03 | 0.10 | 0.06 | −0.01 | 0.12 | 0.04 |
BMI-for-age z-score | 0.39 *** | 0.26 *** | −0.04 | 0.09 | 0.07 | −0.002 | 0.11 | 0.05 |
MUAC (cm) | 0.46 *** | 0.39 *** | 0.01 | 0.05 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.05 | −0.02 |
Sum of skinfold thickness at three sites (mm) | 0.53 *** | 0.44 *** | 0.02 | −0.04 | 0.10 | −0.05 | 0.13 | 0.06 |
Child Adiposity Measures | Boys | Girls | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Mean ± SD | β (95% CI) | p Value | Mean ± SD | β (95% CI) | p Value | ||
ZWFL | SBP (mmHg) | |||||||
−1 to 1 | 153 | 91.6 ± 6.6 | Ref. | 137 | 90.9 ± 6.5 | Ref. | ||
>1 to 2 | 47 | 96.1 ± 8.4 | 4.3 (1.8, 6.8) | 0.0008 | 47 | 95.0 ± 8.1 | 4.0 (1.7, 6.3) | 0.0005 |
>2 (OWO) | 10 | 104.4 ± 15.7 | 12.6 (7.7, 17.4) | <0.0001 | 6 | 103.3 ± 9.8 | 12.5 (6.9, 18.2) | <0.0001 |
<−1 | 17 | 91.6 ± 7.4 | 0.07 (−3.7, 3.8) | 0.97 | 16 | 86.4 ± 7.5 | −4.2 (−7.8, −0.7) | 0.02 |
ZWFL continuous | 3.2 (2.2, 4.2) | <0.0001 | 3.0 (2.0, 4.1) | <0.0001 | ||||
DBP (mmHg) | ||||||||
−1 to 1 | 153 | 60.5 ± 5.9 | Ref. | 137 | 60.6 ± 5.7 | Ref. | ||
>1 to 2 | 47 | 62.7 ± 5.6 | 2.1 (0.1, 4.1) | 0.04 | 47 | 63.1 ± 5.0 | 2.4 (0.6, 4.2) | 0.009 |
>2 (OWO) | 10 | 68.5 ± 10.3 | 7.9 (4.1, 11.8) | <0.0001 | 6 | 67.5 ± 8.2 | 7.0 (2.5, 11.4) | 0.002 |
<−1 | 17 | 61.2 ± 5.5 | 0.7 (−2.3, 3.7) | 0.65 | 16 | 59.3 ± 4.6 | −1.1 (−4.0, 1.8) | 0.46 |
ZWFL continuous | 1.7 (0.9, 2.5) | <0.0001 | 1.8 (1.0, 2.6) | <0.0001 |
Child Cardiometabolic Risk Factors at Age 2 Years | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal Prenatal Factors | n | Mean ± SD | β (95% CI) | p Value |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | SBP, mm Hg | |||
none | 402 | 92.3 ± 7.75 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 96.69 ± 9.61 | 2.95 (0.08, 5.82) | 0.04 |
Preeclampsia | 5 | 90 ± 7.07 | −3.63 (−9.99, 2.74) | 0.26 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | DBP, mm Hg | |||
none | 400 | 61.1 ± 5.7 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 65 ± 8.83 | 3.17 (0.90, 5.44) | 0.006 |
Preeclampsia | 5 | 60 ± 6.12 | −1.46 (−6.50, 3.57) | 0.57 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | Glucose, mmol/L | |||
none | 384 | 4.93 ± 0.59 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 5.18 ± 0.43 | 0.24 (0.01, 0.47) | 0.04 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 5.23 ± 0.82 | 0.25 (−0.18, 0.69) | 0.26 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | log (insulin), pmol/L | |||
none | 383 | 3.29 ± 0.88 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 3.62 ± 0.97 | 0.31 (−0.04, 0.65) | 0.08 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 3.16 ± 0.8 | −0.16 (−0.81, 0.49) | 0.63 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | TC, mmol/L | |||
none | 384 | 4.17 ± 0.73 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 4.09 ± 0.64 | −0.08 (−0.37, 0.20) | 0.56 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 4.26 ± 0.33 | 0.09 (−0.44, 0.63) | 0.74 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | Triglycerides, mmol/L | |||
none | 384 | 1.07 ± 0.59 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 1.34 ± 0.95 | 0.26 (0.01, 0.51) | 0.04 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 0.81 ± 0.45 | −0.3 (−0.76, 0.17) | 0.21 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | HDL, mmol/L | |||
none | 384 | 1.39 ± 0.32 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 1.34 ± 0.38 | −0.06 (−0.19, 0.07) | 0.38 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 1.74 ± 0.29 | 0.33 (0.09, 0.57) | 0.007 |
Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy | LDL, mmol/L | |||
none | 384 | 2.37 ± 0.54 | Ref. | |
Chronic hypertension/gestational hypertention | 26 | 2.26 ± 0.43 | −0.1 (−0.31, 0.11) | 0.35 |
Preeclampsia | 7 | 2.34 ± 0.22 | 0.02 (−0.38, 0.41) | 0.93 |
Maternal Prenatal Factors | Child Cardiometabolic Risk Factors at Age 2 Years | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean ± SD | β (95% CI) | p Value | |
GDM | SBP, mm Hg | |||
no | 382 | 92.34 ± 7.7 | Ref. | |
yes | 51 | 93.96 ± 9.37 | 2.2 (0.10, 4.30) | 0.04 |
DBP, mm Hg | ||||
no | 380 | 61.18 ± 5.72 | Ref. | |
yes | 51 | 62.41 ± 7.7 | 1.6 (−0.07, 3.28) | 0.06 |
Glucose, mmol/L | ||||
no | 364 | 4.92 ± 0.58 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 5.09 ± 0.61 | 0.16 (−0.01, 0.33) | 0.06 |
log (insulin), pmol/L | ||||
no | 363 | 3.29 ± 0.87 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 3.41 ± 0.93 | 0.13 (−0.12, 0.38) | 0.31 |
TC, mmol/L | ||||
no | 364 | 4.17 ± 0.71 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 4.13 ± 0.77 | −0.04 (−0.24, 0.17) | 0.73 |
Triglycerides, mmol/L | ||||
no | 364 | 1.10 ± 0.64 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 0.93 ± 0.45 | −0.17 (−0.35, 0.00) | 0.06 |
HDL, mmol/L | ||||
no | 364 | 1.4 ± 0.31 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 1.36 ± 0.39 | −0.04 (−0.13, 0.06) | 0.45 |
LDL, mmol/L | ||||
no | 364 | 2.36 ± 0.53 | Ref. | |
yes | 53 | 2.33 ± 0.53 | −0.03 (−0.18, 0.13) | 0.74 |
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Ouyang, F.; Wells, J.C.; Zhang, G.-H.; Du, K.; Wang, X.; Shen, L.; Luo, Z.-C.; Zhang, J. Maternal Prenatal Factors and Child Adiposity in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Chinese Children at the Age of 2 Years. Nutrients 2023, 15, 3342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153342
Ouyang F, Wells JC, Zhang G-H, Du K, Wang X, Shen L, Luo Z-C, Zhang J. Maternal Prenatal Factors and Child Adiposity in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Chinese Children at the Age of 2 Years. Nutrients. 2023; 15(15):3342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153342
Chicago/Turabian StyleOuyang, Fengxiu, Jonathan C. Wells, Guang-Hui Zhang, Kun Du, Xia Wang, Lixiao Shen, Zhong-Cheng Luo, and Jun Zhang. 2023. "Maternal Prenatal Factors and Child Adiposity in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Chinese Children at the Age of 2 Years" Nutrients 15, no. 15: 3342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153342
APA StyleOuyang, F., Wells, J. C., Zhang, G.-H., Du, K., Wang, X., Shen, L., Luo, Z.-C., & Zhang, J. (2023). Maternal Prenatal Factors and Child Adiposity in Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Term-Born Chinese Children at the Age of 2 Years. Nutrients, 15(15), 3342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153342