Next Article in Journal
Assessing the Effect of Plant-Based Mince on Fullness and Post-Prandial Satiety in Healthy Male Subjects
Previous Article in Journal
Associations between Dietary Intake of Vitamin D, Sun Exposure, and Generalized Anxiety among College Women
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Nutrients
Volume 14
Issue 24
10.3390/nu14245328
nutrients-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Association between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Parenting Styles and the Risk of Overweight/Obesity among Adolescents in San José Province, Costa Rica

by
Rafael Monge-Rojas
1,*,
Vanessa Smith-Castro
2,
Teresia M. O’Connor
3,
Rulamán Vargas-Quesada
1 and
Benjamín Reyes-Fernández
2
1
Nutrition and Health Unit, Costa Rican Institute for Research and Education on Nutrition and Health (INCIENSA), Ministry of Health, Tres Ríos P.O. Box 4-2250, Costa Rica
2
Psychological Research Institute, Universidad de Costa Rica, City of Research, Montes de Oca 11501-2060, Costa Rica
3
USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nutrients 2022, 14(24), 5328; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245328
Submission received: 1 December 2022 / Revised: 12 December 2022 / Accepted: 13 December 2022 / Published: 15 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Nutrition and Public Health)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Parenting styles are a risk factor for adolescents overweight/obesity worldwide, but this association is not well understood in the context of Latin America. This study examines the association between the parenting styles of mothers and fathers and the risk of overweight/obesity among Costa Rican adolescents. Data are cross-sectional from a sample of adolescents (13–18 years old) enrolled in ten urban and eight rural schools (n = 18) in the province of San José, Costa Rica, in 2017. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the likelihood of adolescents being overweight according to the mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles. A significant association was found between the risk of adolescent overweight/obesity and the paternal authoritarian style only in rural areas (B = 0.622, SE = 0.317, Wald = 3.864, ExpB = 1.863, p = 0.04), and between said risk and the paternal permissive style only in male adolescents (B = 0.901, SE = 0.435, Wald = 4.286, ExpB = 2.461, p = 0.038). For maternal parenting styles, no associations reached significant levels once logistic regression models were adjusted for the fathers’ parenting styles. These findings underscore the importance of further studying the role of fathers’ paternal parenting styles on Latin American adolescent weight outcomes. Expanding our understanding of the parenting styles of fathers has important implications for the design and implementation of culturally- and gender-appropriate family interventions.

1. Introduction

Obesity during adolescence is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, cardiometabolic syndrome, and related complications into adulthood [1]. The Latin American region has been driving large increases in the global prevalence of adolescent obesity [2,3]. Specifically, in Costa Rica, recent data showed that 21% and 9.8% of adolescents (13–18 y) suffer from overweight and obesity, respectively [4]. This finding is quite alarming because, out of five Central American countries, Costa Rica already has the lowest percentage (9%) of adults (20 years or older) that are free of any metabolic syndrome components [5].
Although it has been considered that the fundamental cause of overweight/obesity is an energy imbalance between calories consumed and calories expended, several psychosocial factors contribute to the development and maintenance of overweight and obesity during adolescence [6,7]. There is strong evidence for the influence of the family environment and the social context on weight-related outcomes in this developmental age period [6,8,9].
Specifically, parenting styles have been associated with weight status in school-aged children and adolescents [9,10,11,12,13]. Parenting styles aim to define how parents interact with children as they grow [13]. The styles are a constellation of attitudes toward the child that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which parental behaviors are expressed [14].
Some studies have shown that parenting styles that are authoritarian (low responsiveness, high demandingness) and permissive/indulgent (low responsiveness, low demandingness) are related to higher BMIs in the offspring [13,15,16,17,18,19], whereas an authoritative parenting style (high responsiveness, high demandingness) are related to a lower BMI in the child [10,11,15,17,20]. However, since most of these studies use the term “children” to refer to the 3-to-16-year-old group, less is known about the association between parenting styles and overweight risk among adolescents aged 13–18.
Published studies on adolescents have been primarily conducted in the United States and on maternal (rather than paternal) parenting styles. In these studies [9,12,13], having either authoritarian or disengaged parents is associated with larger BMI increases as the children transitioned to young adulthood, regardless of their previous BMI trajectory [9]. The maternal authoritarian style has been identified as a risk factor for higher BMIs among male adolescents [13], whereas the authoritative style in mothers could play a protective role against the development of overweight among adolescents of both sexes [12,13]. These findings suggest that maternal parenting styles can have long-lasting effects on a child’s weight regulation throughout their life. Less is known about the impact of paternal parenting styles or the combined effects of both maternal and paternal styles on the weight status of adolescents. Fathers are often underrepresented in observational studies on parenting styles and obesity studies in general [21]. The limited data on fathers has not found a significant association between paternal parenting styles and adolescent BMIs [13,21]. Further, if parenting styles between the mothers and fathers differ considerably, these incongruent styles may exert diverse influences on adolescent BMIs. A study in the United States suggests that the co-occurrence of incongruent parenting styles (authoritarian mother and neglectful father) can increase the likelihood of higher BMIs among adolescent males [13]. According to Berge and colleagues [13], incongruent parenting styles can foster a chaotic or inconsistent home environment that can affect the adolescent’s regulation of eating or physical activity.
Parenting styles are influenced by diverse sociocultural factors. Differences in the fundamental basics of parenting styles are led by discrepancies in thoughts and behaviors among cultures, and their results can vary between urban and rural communities in the same country, as well as according to the sex of the child. For example, studies in the Middle East and South Asian countries suggest that the authoritarian style is more prevalent in urban areas, while the authoritative style predominates in rural areas [22,23,24,25]. Parenting styles may depend on the child’s sex, according to the cultural context in which the parent–child dyad socializes, even within the same urban or rural environment [22,23,24,25].
Individualistic cultures, common in North American and European countries, support emotional independence, assertiveness, autonomy, and the need for privacy where the individual loosens their bonds with others [26]. On the contrary, collectivist cultures, which prevail in Costa Rica and other Latin American countries [27], prioritize socialization, obedience, security, and family integrity [26]. The differences between the two cultures lead to dissimilar parenting styles because parenting behaviors and their impacts vary from one culture to another [28]. Therefore, characterizing the association between the fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles and the risk of being overweight among adolescents in a Latin American context is an essential first step to contribute to the design of culturally appropriate interventions that promote healthy weights in this demographic group.
The objective of this study is to describe the association between paternal and maternal parenting styles and adolescent overweight and obesity risk by the sex of the child and by their area of residence in Costa Rica. In this way, the study aims to significantly expand the existing literature on parenting styles and adolescent weight in three key ways: (1) purposively including the fathers’ parenting styles in addition to the mothers’; (2) examining the associations by the sex of the adolescent offspring; and (3) in the context of Latin America.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Population and Setting

The study population was drawn from Costa Rican adolescents (13–18 years old, 7th to 11th graders) enrolled in rural and urban schools in the province of San José. This province was selected because it has the highest concentration of adolescents (30%) in the country [29], and the majority (80%) of them are enrolled in school [30]. Adolescents were recruited between February 2017 and September 2017.
The sample size was determined assuming a sampling error for a population proportion with a finite population correction [31]. Urban and rural schools were selected using a proportional-size probability method [32]. In each school, ten classrooms (two from each grade from 7th to 11th) were selected using simple random sampling. Students from each classroom were invited to participate in the study and provided informed assent and informed consent forms. In order to define the study sample, a random selection was made among those students who provided signed informed consent and assent forms. About 5% of the selected students decided not to participate in the study before the start. The final study sample was 818 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years. Only those who provided complete data on both their fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles were included in this analysis (n = 695).

2.2. Data Collection

At each high school, the adolescents were gathered in a classroom reserved for the study during regular hours. A researcher instructed the students on completing their sociodemographic information (age, gender, and area of residence), and filling out the Parenting Styles Questionnaire. One of the researchers involved in this study was available to answer any questions. The adolescents were weighed and measured upon completion of the scale as described further below.

2.3. Parenting Styles Questionnaire

To assess their perception of their parents’ parenting styles, adolescents filled out the short version (32 items) of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) [33]. This tool was designed to measure parenting styles according to Baumrind’s typologies: authoritative (high responsiveness and high demandingness), authoritarian (low responsiveness and high demandingness), and permissive/indulgent (high responsiveness and low demandingness) [34]. The Authoritative scale contains 15 items reflecting the three dimensions of warmth and support, regulation, and autonomy granting; the Authoritarian scale involves 12 items, yielding the three dimensions of physical coercion, verbal hostility, and nonreasoning/punitive strategies, and the Permissive scale comprises only one dimension, indulgence, which is composed of five items [33]. Items use a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Never (1) to Always (5). The score for each of the dimensions is the average of its items.
The PSDQ was translated into Spanish by the authors (native Spanish speakers from Costa Rica) since, at the time of data collection, there was no published literature on the short version of the questionnaire for Spanish-speaking audiences. Further, 20 adolescents (13–18 y) in Costa Rica were polled using cognitive interviewing techniques [35] to evaluate survey item comprehension, and the questions were later revised to increase understanding.
Our team performed a psychometric validation of the translated PSDQ short version with the Costa Rican adolescent study population having both mothers and fathers (n = 300). Therefore, participating adolescents were asked to complete the PSDQ twice to assess their perception of the warmth and demandingness of both their fathers and mothers. Both parents were scored on each of the three parenting styles. This validation has been published elsewhere [36], but in brief, the paternal and maternal authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles scales had an internal consistency that ranged between satisfactory and good [37] (paternal: Cronbach α = 0.91 and 0.70, respectively; maternal: Cronbach α = 0.90 and 0.73, respectively). However, the permissive parenting style scale had a moderate consistency for mothers (Cronbach α = 0.51) and fathers (Cronbach α = 0.52).
Although the PSDQ was designed to be used with parents of children aged 4 to 12, the questionnaire has been validated and used in several adolescent studies to investigate various health outcomes [38,39,40,41,42].

2.4. Anthropometric Assessment

A trained nutritionist measured participants’ heights and weights. Height was obtained to the nearest 0.1 cm using a stadiometer, and weight was measured in kg using a digital scale following the methodology described by Preedy [43]. Before stepping on the digital scale, adolescents were asked to remove their shoes and as much outerwear as possible and to empty their pockets. Body Mass Index (BMI) values were calculated from measured heights and weights using the standard equation: weight (kg)/height (m)2. Nutritional status was determined using the BMI Z score for age, as recommended by the World Health Organization [44]: <−2: underweight; ≥−2 and <+1: healthy weight (eutrophy); ≥+1 and <+2: overweight, and ≥+2: obese. The outcome for all assessments was overweight/obese with a BMI Z score of ≥+1.

2.5. Sociodemographic Variables

Data on sex, age, area of residence, parental education level, ownership of goods, and access to services (e.g., computers, internet, router, cable television, and water heating for the whole house), and family structure were collected using a paper-based questionnaire. The information on educational level and ownership of goods and access to services was used to determine the adolescents’ socioeconomic status according to the socioeconomic status index for students and secondary schools in Costa Rica developed by Madrigal and Gómez [45] and using the k-means procedure [46].

2.6. Data Analysis

Two mixed ANOVAs for paternal and maternal parenting styles were conducted to test for differences across the perceived parenting styles among healthy weight and overweight adolescents, with parenting styles as a within-subjects factor and weight as a between-subjects factor (healthy weight vs. overweight/obesity).
Various hierarchical logistic regression analyses [47] were performed to assess the likelihood of adolescents being overweight according to the mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles. As there were some cases of obesity (n = 66), the combined overweight/obesity variable (henceforth overweight) was created to include adolescents with obesity (n = 66) and overweight (n = 161). This allowed for three-way interaction analyses while maintaining an adequate number of degrees of freedom.
In Step 1, maternal and paternal parenting styles, area of residence, SES, sex, and age were included as predictors of overweight. In Step 2, we included two-way interaction terms for each parenting style and adolescent sex and area of residence, respectively. In Step 3, we included three-way interactions for each parenting style, sex, and area of residence. All continuous variables were centered at their means, and binary predictors were dummy coded (0 = healthy weight, 1 = overweight/obese, 0 = boys, 1 = girls, 0 = urban, 1 = rural, 0 = low SES, 1 = middle/high SES). Statistically significant interactions were analyzed via a simple slope analysis [48]. The formula suggested by Paternoster et al. [49] was used to test the equality of regression coefficients. All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Inc., version 21.0 for Windows, Chicago, IL, USA). A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The analytic plan was pre-specified, and any data-driven analyses were clearly identified and discussed appropriately.

3. Results

Table 1 presents the characteristics of 695 adolescents eligible for analysis: out of the total sample, 65% were girls, mean age was 14.9 years (SD 1.7), mean BMI was 22.3 (SD 4.3), and 50.2% lived in urban areas. The prevalence of overweight/obese in the sample was 33.5%. No differences were found across sex or area of residence.
Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for paternal and maternal parenting styles as perceived by adolescents. Although there were no significant differences across paternal and maternal parenting styles by adolescent weight status, the adolescents generally reported higher mean scores for authoritative styles, followed by permissive styles, and lower mean scores for authoritarian styles for both fathers and mothers (F 2.681 = 370.84, p < 0.001 for fathers and F 2.687 = 472.19, p < 0.001 for mothers).
Table 3 summarizes the hierarchical logistic models predicting the influence of paternal and maternal parenting styles on adolescent overweight/obese status by area of residence and sex of the adolescent. For maternal parenting styles, no associations reached statistical significance once the fathers’ parenting styles were added to the models. However, paternal parenting styles were significantly associated with the risk of adolescent overweight/obesity in various manners. Analyses revealed a significant moderator effect by area of residence on the association between paternal authoritarian style and adolescent overweight/obesity (BMI Z score ≥ +1) (B = 1.403, SE = 0.66, Wald = 4.528, Exp B = 4.069, p = 0.033).
Simple slope analyses revealed a significant relationship between the paternal authoritarian style and the risk of overweight/obesity among adolescents living in rural areas (B = 0.622, SE = 0.317, Wald = 3.864, ExpB = 1.863, p = 0.04), but not in urban areas (B = −0.117, SE = 0.233, Wald = 0.254, ExpB = 0.889, p = 0.614). The odds of overweight/obesity among adolescents living in rural areas with authoritarian fathers were nearly twice those of urban adolescents (Figure 1). The test for equality of regression coefficients corroborated that the effect of authoritarian fathers on adolescent overweight/obesity varied significantly between urban and rural areas (Z = −1.878, p = 0.030).
Analyses also showed a significant three-way interaction between a permissive paternal style and adolescent sex and area of residence on overweight/obesity risk (B = 1.845, SE = 0.816, Wald = 5.113, ExpB = 6.328, p = 0.024). Two post hoc logistic regression analyses were conducted separately for each area of residence. In urban areas, a significant interaction was found between permissive fathers and adolescent sex on overweight/obesity risk (B = −1.297, SE = 0.538, Wald = 5.815, ExpB = 0.273, p = 0.016), but this interaction was not significant in rural areas (B = 0.465, SE = 0.619, Wald = 0.563, ExpB = 1.592, p = 0.453).
In urban areas, simple slope analyses revealed a significant relationship between a permissive paternal style and overweight risk only among male adolescents (B = 0.901, SE = 0.435, Wald = 4.286, ExpB = 2.461, p = 0.038) but not females (B = −0.409, SE = 0.323, Wald = 1.605, ExpB = 0.664, p = 0.205). Compared to females, males with permissive fathers had almost 2.5 times the odds of being overweight/obese (Figure 2). The test for equality of regression coefficients verified that the effect of permissive fathers on adolescent BMI risk varied significantly by adolescent sex (Z = 2.418, p = 0.007).

4. Discussion

Our results add significantly to the limited literature on the effects of paternal and maternal parenting styles on adolescent weight status. An important finding of our study is that only paternal parenting styles remained significantly associated with overweight/obesity risk among adolescents in Costa Rica, even when controlling for important predictors such as age and SES. This finding is not necessarily in agreement with most other studies, which have reported a significant association between maternal parenting styles and obesity risk in school-aged children and adolescents, although these have been conducted in the United States [10,11,12,20]. However, most other studies that have investigated the parenting styles of both parents and the children’s weight status are different from our study in that they combined maternal and paternal parenting styles as an overall ‘parenting style’, potentially skewing the results because overweight risk in adolescents may be influenced differently according to each parent’s parenting style [10]. When parenting styles are separated between mothers and fathers in heterosexual couples, the influence of the maternal parenting style may lose significance after adjusting for paternal styles, as happened in our analyses and four other prospective studies recently reviewed [10]. Another study that assessed the parenting style of fathers and mothers of 4–5-year-olds in Australia also demonstrated that the father’s, but not the mother’s, parenting style was associated with higher odds of their child having a higher weight status [50]. The reason why this occurs remains to be determined.
Our study includes a Latin American population that adds to the cultural diversity of the existing literature on parenting styles and adolescent overweight/obesity risk, which has previously focused mainly on non-Hispanic white populations. Therefore, the findings must be interpreted within the Hispanic and Latin American cultural context where values related to familism (e.g., loyalty, respect, obedience, and solidarity) may remain important, with a high tendency to prioritize hierarchy and respect for the elders, including parental figures [51]. Attitudinal familism in adolescents has been associated with the perception of parents serving as legitimate sources of guidance and unquestionable authority [52]. These attitudes have been historically present among Latin American parents compared to parents from other cultural backgrounds [53].
Nonetheless, cultures are constantly in flux, and Latin American adolescents, such as adolescents from other cultural contexts, are increasingly likely to believe that disagreeing with parents is acceptable and that behavioral autonomy is desirable [54]. This may cause conflict in the family, especially if authoritarian parents hold on to inflexible cultural values that emphasize unquestionable paternal authority, the heavy use of control and discipline, and a lack of warmth in the relationship.
Disagreements between parents and adolescents regarding the latter’s autonomy have been associated with alterations in the psychological adaptation of adolescents [53]. Especially among adolescents with authoritarian fathers, this parenting style may trigger emotional eating among adolescents and increase their risk of unhealthy weight gain [55]. Although attitudinal and behavioral familism has been identified as a protective factor for some adolescent outcomes, familism may also be potentially detrimental to adolescents living in stressful and conflictive contexts [54]. In rural areas of Costa Rica, where familial relational values are still deeply ingrained [56], our results suggest that authoritarian fathers may continue to pose a significant risk factor for adolescent overweight risk. New insights are needed to understand the complex dynamics occurring between fathers and adolescents, especially within the Latin American cultural context and as the adolescents’ sense of autonomy continues to increase.
Another factor at play in the interaction between fathers and adolescents is the sex of the child, as noted in our findings. Traditional Latino and Latin American cultures emphasize rights and responsibilities among family members based on sex [57]. However, boys are still raised in a machismo-endorsing society that grants them greater freedoms without strict parental monitoring [51]. Since boys are deemed more capable of looking after themselves, their social interactions may not be as closely monitored [58]. Role theory supports the notion that fathers may parent their sons and daughters differently [59], perhaps perpetuating the socialization roles accepted as masculine in the Latino culture. This context might help explain why fathers tend to favor a permissive parenting style towards boys.
Our findings show that a permissive parenting style is significantly associated with adolescent risk of overweight/obesity only in same-sex parent/adolescent dyads (father-son). This is in contrast to the findings Berge et al. [12] reported on opposite-sex parent/adolescent dyad patterns related to parenting styles and adolescent weight. Nonetheless, it is in agreement with previous evidence suggesting that Costa Rican adolescents have better communications with the same-sex parent [60] and that a permissive parenting style with the male adolescent [61] is more in line with the traditional machismo-endorsing society in the Latino culture [51]. It is critical to further study and expand our understanding of parenting styles and role theory within the Latin American context. Adolescent children of permissive parents tend to have less healthy home environments [62] and a higher risk of overeating tendencies [14,63], which may increase the risk of being overweight.
Considering the relevant role of parents in the risk of overweight/obesity evidenced in this study, researchers should look for strategies and facilitate parental participation in the studies. We must expand our understanding of the critical public health implications of paternal parenting styles, particularly for designing and implementing culturally and gender-appropriate family interventions aimed at preventing and reducing overweight among adolescents living in the San José province.
The underrepresentation of fathers in observational studies on parenting styles and the risk of overweight/obesity in the pediatric population has been associated with the traditional roles of guardians based on gender, lack of time, lack of interest in research, and lack of availability and accessibility compared to mothers [64,65]. However, a recent study with more than 300 parents showed that nearly 80% did not participate in research because they were not invited [65]. Davison [65] has suggested that parents are more likely to participate in studies when they perceive that the time they must allocate is short, the recruitment material emphasizes the benefits their participation would have for them and their families, and they receive information about the study through a parent-sensitive approach.
In conclusion, our results suggest that fathers of adolescent inhabitants of the province of San José have the potential to influence their children’s weight outcomes, perhaps even over and above the mothers’ influence. This shows that fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles are related differently to the risk of overweight/obesity in adolescents living in this province. Understanding the influence of both paternal and maternal parenting styles on adolescent eating behaviors will help build up the knowledge of the emotional climates in which positive and negative nutritional behaviors originate.
This study had some strengths and limitations that must be considered when interpreting its results. The strengths include: (1) the study is the examination of urban and rural adolescents and their perceptions of both fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles, as opposed to most studies that only include urban adolescents and maternal parenting styles; (2) by including fathers in our study, we enhanced opportunities to learn more about their influence on adolescent overweight- and obesity-related behaviors; and (3) the internal consistency analysis revealed mostly satisfactory to good values, with most scores exceeding the recommended minimum Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70 [37], except for the permissive scale which had moderate internal consistency (i.e., α = 0.52). This may have resulted from the limited number of items (n = 5) on the permissiveness scale as compared to 15 and 12 items on the authoritative and authoritarian scales, respectively. However, the moderate internal consistency of the permissiveness scale is similar to other studies [66] and the original questionnaire research [33]. Limitations include: (1) The study’s cross-sectional nature implies association, not causality, between parenting styles and adolescent overweight/obesity. Still, the study provides a perspective on the association between parenting styles and the risk of adolescent obesity within a Latin American cultural context, which is vastly different from the existing literature [9,12,13]. (2) Our study only involved adolescents and the results only reflect their perception of their parents’ parenting styles. Involving at least another family member would provide a more global perception of parenting styles. (3) The instrument we used did not categorize parents into one of the three parenting styles but instead provided scores across all three dimensions for each parent. Different results may have been found if parents were forced into one of the categories. (4) The study sample was not nationally representative; it was limited to urban and rural areas within the province of San José. However, the highest proportion of Costa Rican adolescents (30%) is clustered in that province [29]. Moreover, the sample included adolescents enrolled in school, representing ∼80% of all adolescents in Costa Rica [30].

Author Contributions

R.M.-R.: Conceived and designed the study, collected and interpreted data, and wrote the manuscript. V.S.-C.: Contributed importantly to the analysis and interpretation of data and assisted in writing the manuscript. T.M.O., R.V.-Q. and B.R.-F.: Made major contributions to the interpretation of data and assisted in writing the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Tobacco Control Program of the Department for Strategic Planning and Evaluation of Health Actions of the Costa Rican Ministry of Health (agreements DM-FG-4854-14 and DM-FG-1748-2018).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and with Law 9234, “Regulatory Law of Biomedical Research”, which regulates biomedical research in Costa Rica. The study protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Costa Rican Institute for Research and Education on Nutrition and Health (INCIENSA) under number IC-2007-01.

Informed Consent Statement

We obtained oral and written informed assents from all adolescents included in the study; likewise, we obtained written informed consent from their parents.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Ana Leonor Rivera for her support in data collection.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funder had no role in the design of the study, collection, analyses, or interpretation of data, writing of the manuscript, or decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Weihrauch-Blüher, S.; Schwarz, P.; Klusmann, J.-H. Childhood Obesity: Increased Risk for Cardiometabolic Disease and Cancer in Adulthood. Metabolism 2019, 92, 147–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Rivera, J.Á.; de Cossío, T.G.; Pedraza, L.S.; Aburto, T.C.; Sánchez, T.G.; Martorell, R. Childhood and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity in Latin America: A Systematic Review. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014, 2, 321–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Abarca-Gómez, L.; Abdeen, Z.A.; Hamid, Z.A.; Abu-Rmeileh, N.M.; Acosta-Cazares, B.; Acuin, C.; Adams, R.J.; Aekplakorn, W.; Afsana, K.; Aguilar-Salinas, C.A.; et al. Worldwide Trends in Body-Mass Index, Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity from 1975 to 2016: A Pooled Analysis of 2416 Population-Based Measurement Studies in 128·9 Million Children, Adolescents, and Adults. Lancet 2017, 390, 2627–2642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica. Encuesta Colegial de Vigilancia Nutricional y de Actividad Física [High School Survey of Nutritional Surveillance and Physical Activity]; Ministerio de Salud: San José, Costa Rica, 2020. Available online: https://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/index.php/biblioteca-de-archivos-left/documentos-ministerio-de-salud/vigilancia-de-la-salud/normas-protocolos-guias-y-lineamientos/vigilancia-nutricional/censos-y-encuestas/encuesta-colegial-de-vigilancia-nutricional-y-actividad-fisica-2018-vigilancia-de-la-salud/5296-informe-de-resultados-encuesta-colegial-2018/file (accessed on 3 October 2022).
  5. Wong-McClure, R.A.; Gregg, E.W.; Barceló, A.; Lee, K.; Abarca-Gómez, L.; Sanabria-López, L.; Tortós-Guzmán, J. Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Central America: A Cross-Sectional Population-Based Study. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 2015, 38, 202–208. [Google Scholar]
  6. Story, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D.; French, S. Individual and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Eating Behaviors. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2002, 102, S40–S51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Zeller, M.H.; Modi, A.C. Psychosocial Factors Related to Obesity in Children and Adolescents. In Handbook of Childhood and Adolescent Obesity; Jelalian, E., Steele, R.G., Eds.; Issues in Clinical Child Psychology; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2009; pp. 25–42. ISBN 978-0-387-76922-6. [Google Scholar]
  8. Higgs, S.; Thomas, J. Social Influences on Eating. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 2016, 9, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Fuemmeler, B.F.; Yang, C.; Costanzo, P.; Hoyle, R.H.; Siegler, I.C.; Williams, R.B.; Østbye, T. Parenting Styles and Body Mass Index Trajectories from Adolescence to Adulthood. Health Psychol. 2012, 31, 441–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Okol, R.L.; Qin, B.; Poti, J.M. Parenting Styles and Body Mass Index: A Systematic Review of Prospective Studies among Children: Parenting Styles and Body Mass Index. Obes. Rev. 2017, 18, 281–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Vollmer, R.L.; Mobley, A.R. Parenting Styles, Feeding Styles, and Their Influence on Child Obesogenic Behaviors and Body Weight. A Review. Appetite 2013, 71, 232–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Berge, J.M.; Wall, M.; Loth, K.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Parenting Style as a Predictor of Adolescent Weight and Weight-Related Behaviors. J. Adolesc. Health 2010, 46, 331–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Berge, J.M.; Wall, M.; Bauer, K.W.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Parenting Characteristics in the Home Environment and Adolescent Overweight: A Latent Class Analysis. Obesity 2010, 18, 818–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Darling, N.; Steinberg, L. Parenting Style as Context: An Integrative Model. Psychol. Bull. 1993, 113, 487–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Sleddens, E.F.C.; Gerards, S.M.P.L.; Thijs, C.; de Vries, N.K.; Kremers, S.P.J. General Parenting, Childhood Overweight and Obesity-Inducing Behaviors: A Review. Int. J. Pediatr. Obes. 2011, 6, e12–e27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Olvera, N.; Power, T.G. Brief Report: Parenting Styles and Obesity in Mexican American Children: A Longitudinal Study. J. Pediatr. Psychol. 2010, 35, 243–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Shloim, N.; Edelson, L.R.; Martin, N.; Hetherington, M.M. Parenting Styles, Feeding Styles, Feeding Practices, and Weight Status in 4–12 Year-Old Children: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Front. Psychol. 2015, 6, 1849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Kakinami, L.; Barnett, T.A.; Séguin, L.; Paradis, G. Parenting Style and Obesity Risk in Children. Prev. Med. 2015, 75, 18–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Rhee, K.E.; Lumeng, J.C.; Appugliese, D.P.; Kaciroti, N.; Bradley, R.H. Parenting Styles and Overweight Status in First Grade. Pediatrics 2006, 117, 2047–2054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Kiefner-Burmeister, A.; Hinman, N. The Role of General Parenting Style in Child Diet and Obesity Risk. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2020, 9, 14–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Davison, K.K.; Gicevic, S.; Aftosmes-Tobio, A.; Ganter, C.; Simon, C.L.; Newlan, S.; Manganello, J.A. Fathers’ Representation in Observational Studies on Parenting and Childhood Obesity: A Systematic Review and Content Analysis. Am. J. Public Health 2016, 106, e14–e21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Dwairy, M.; Achoui, M.; Abouserie, R.; Farah, A.; Sakhleh, A.A.; Fayad, M.; Khan, H.K. Parenting Styles in Arab Societies: A First Cross-Regional Research Study. J. Cross. Cult. Psychol. 2006, 37, 230–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Dwairy, M.; Menshar, K.E. Parenting Style, Individuation, and Mental Health of Egyptian Adolescents. J. Adolesc. 2006, 29, 103–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Mayuri, K.; Divya, V.; Kiran, K. Parenting Styles as Perceived by Parents and Children. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2017, 6, 2319–7064. [Google Scholar]
  25. Sondhi, R. Parenting Adolescents in India: A Cultural Perspective. In Child and Adolescent Mental Health; Maurer, M.H., Ed.; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2017; ISBN 978-953-51-3189-2. [Google Scholar]
  26. Sorkhabi, N. Applicability of Baumrind’s Parent Typology to Collective Cultures: Analysis of Cultural Explanations of Parent Socialization Effects. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2005, 29, 552–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Febiyanti, A.; Rachmawati, Y. Is Authoritative Parenting the Best Parenting Style? Atlantis Press: Bandung, Indonesia, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  28. Davids, E.L.; Roman, N.V.; Leach, L. Decision Making Styles: A Systematic Review of Their Associations with Parenting. Adolescent. Res. Rev. 2016, 1, 69–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos, Costa Rica. Personas Menores de Edad a la Luz del Censo 2011 [Minors in Light of the Census 2011]; INEC: San José, Costa Rica, 2011. Available online: https://accionsocial.ucr.ac.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/personas_menores_de_edad_a_la_luz_del_censo_2011.pdf (accessed on 5 October 2022).
  30. Programa Estado de la Nación. Séptimo Informe Estado de La Educación/Seventh State of Education Report; Programa Estado de la Nación: San José, Costa Rica, 2019; Available online: https://estadonacion.or.cr/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Estado-Educacio%CC%81n-RESUMEN-2019-WEB.pdf (accessed on 4 October 2022).
  31. Ryan, T.P. Sample Size Determination and Power, 1st ed.; Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013; ISBN 978-1-118-43760-5. [Google Scholar]
  32. Alam, M. Selection of the Samples with Probability Proportional to Size. Sci. J. Appl. Math. Stat. 2015, 3, 230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Robinson, C.C.; Mandleco, B.; Olsen, S.F.; Hart, C.H. The Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire. In Handbook of Family Measurement Techniques; SAGE Publishing: London, UK, 2001; Volume 3, pp. 319–321. [Google Scholar]
  34. Baumrind, D. Parenting Styles and Adolescent Development. In The Encyclopedia of Adolescence; Garland Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 1991; pp. 746–758. [Google Scholar]
  35. Smith-Castro, V.; Molina, M. La Entrevista Cognitiva: Guía Para Su Aplicación En La Evaluación y Mejoramiento de Instrumentos de Papel y Lápiz [Cognitive Interviewing: A Guide for Its Application for Evaluating and Improving Paper and Pencil Instruments]. Cuadernos Metodológicos No 5 2011. Available online: https://iip.ucr.ac.cr/sites/default/files/contenido/Entrevista%20Cognitiva%20%282011%29.pdf (accessed on 6 October 2022).
  36. Reyes-Fernández, B.; Smith-Castro, V. Análisis Psicométrico de las Escalas Utilizadas Para la Recolección de datos del Proyecto: “Influencia del Fumado, la Familia, el Grupo de Pares y los Estereotipos de Género en la Adopción de Hábitos Alimentarios Saludables Durante la Adolescencia” [Psychometric Analysis of the Scales Used to Collect Data from the Study: “Influence of Smoking, Family, Peer Group and Gender Stereotypes in the Adoption of Healthy Eating Habits during Adolescence”] 2018. Available online: https://www.inciensa.sa.cr/investigacion/investigadores/VALIDACION%20ESCALAS%20PSICOMETRICAS.pdf (accessed on 1 October 2022).
  37. Nunnally, J.C.; Bernstein, I.H. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed.; McGraw-Hill Series in Psychology; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1994; ISBN 978-0-07-047849-7. [Google Scholar]
  38. Olivari, M.G.; Tagliabue, S.; Confalonieri, E. Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire: A Review of Reliability and Validity. Marriage Fam. Rev. 2013, 49, 465–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Zuar, L.R.; Chien, K.; Lentine, J.; Cooley, V.; Gerber, L.M.; Ward, M.J.; Keefer, L. Does Parenting Style Affect Adolescent IBD Transition Readiness and Self-Efficacy Scores? Children 2021, 8, 367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Cuccì, G.; O’Leary, K.D.; Olivari, M.G.; Bonanomi, A.; Confalonieri, E. Adolescent Dating Violence Perpetration, Emotion Dysregulation, and Parenting Styles. J. Fam. Psychol. 2019, 33, 12–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Vijay, C.; Gonsalves, K.; Ramesh, N. Parenting Styles and Mental Health of Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study in South India. J. Mental Health Hum. Behav. 2022, 27, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Roman, N.V.; Davids, E.L.; Moyo, A.; Schilder, L.; Lacante, M.; Lens, W. Parenting Styles and Psychological Needs Influences on Adolescent Life Goals and Aspirations in a South African Setting. J. Psychol. Afr. 2015, 25, 305–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Preedy, V.R. (Ed.) . Handbook of Anthropometry: Physical Measures of Human Form in Health and Disease; Springer: New York, NY. USA, 2012; ISBN 978-1-4419-1787-4. [Google Scholar]
  44. World Health Organization. WHO Child Growth Standards: Length/Height-for-Age, Weight-for-Age, Weight-for-Length, Weight-for-Height and Body Mass Index-for-Age; Methods and Development; de Onis, M., Ed.; WHO Child Growth Standards; WHO Press: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006; ISBN 978-92-4-154693-5.
  45. Madrigal-Pana, J.; Gómez-Barrantes, M. Propuesta de Un Índice de Nivel Socioeconómico Para Los Estudiantes y Colegios de Secundaria de Costa Rica; Cuadernos de Trabajo de PROCESOS 2021; Centro Centroamericano de Población, Universidad de Costa Rica: San José, Costa Rica, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  46. Bartholomew, D.J.; Steele, F.; Steele, F.; Moustaki, I. Analysis of Multivariate Social Science Data, 2nd ed.; Chapman and Hall/CRC: London, UK, 2008; ISBN 978-0-429-14567-4. [Google Scholar]
  47. Gelman, A.; Hill, J. Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models, 1st ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2006; ISBN 978-0-521-86706-1. [Google Scholar]
  48. Dawson, J.F.; Richter, A.W. Probing Three-Way Interactions in Moderated Multiple Regression: Development and Application of a Slope Difference Test. J. Appl. Psychol. 2006, 91, 917–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Paternoster, R.; Brame, R.; Mazerolle, P.; Piquero, A. Using the Correct Statistical Test for the Equality of Regression Coefficients. Criminology 1998, 36, 859–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Wake, M.; Nicholson, J.M.; Hardy, P.; Smith, K. Preschooler Obesity and Parenting Styles of Mothers and Fathers: Australian National Population Study. Pediatrics 2007, 120, e1520–e1527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Arredondo, P.; Gallardo-Cooper, M.; Delgado-Romero, E.A.; Zapata, A.L. Culturally Responsive Counseling with Latinas/Os, 1st ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015; ISBN 978-1-55620-241-4. [Google Scholar]
  52. Keller, H.; Kärtner, J. The Cultural Solution of Universal Developmental Tasks. In Advances in Culture and Psychology; Oxford University Press: London, UK, 2013; Volume 3, pp. 63–117. [Google Scholar]
  53. Stein, G.L.; Cupito, A.M.; Mendez, J.L.; Prandoni, J.; Huq, N.; Westerberg, D. Familism through a Developmental Lens. J. Lat. Psychol. 2014, 2, 224–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Roche, K.M.; Caughy, M.O.; Schuster, M.A.; Bogart, L.M.; Dittus, P.J.; Franzini, L. Cultural Orientations, Parental Beliefs and Practices, and Latino Adolescents’ Autonomy and Independence. J. Youth Adolesc. 2014, 43, 1389–1403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Nguyen-Michel, S.T.; Unger, J.B.; Spruijt-Metz, D. Dietary Correlates of Emotional Eating in Adolescence. Appetite 2007, 49, 494–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  56. Rosabal-Coto, M. Creencias y prácticas de crianza: El estudio del parentaje en el contexto costarricense. Rev. Costarric. Psicol. 2012, 31, 65–100. [Google Scholar]
  57. Driscoll, A.K.; Russell, S.T.; Crockett, L.J. Parenting Styles and Youth Well-Being Across Immigrant Generations. J. Fam. Issues 2008, 29, 185–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. McKinney, C.; Renk, K. Differential Parenting Between Mothers and Fathers: Implications for Late Adolescents. J. Fam. Issues 2008, 29, 806–827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Hosley, C.A.; Montemayor, R. Fathers and Adolescents. In The Role of the Father in Child Development; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1997; pp. 162–178. [Google Scholar]
  60. Halgunseth, L.C.; Ispa, J.M.; Rudy, D. Parental Control in Latino Families: An Integrated Review of the Literature. Child. Dev. 2006, 77, 1282–1297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Li, J.-B.; Delvecchio, E.; Miconi, D.; Salcuni, S.; Di Riso, D. Parental Attachment among Chinese, Italian, and Costa Rican Adolescents: A Cross-Cultural Study. Pers. Individ. Dif. 2014, 71, 118–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Johnson, R.; Welk, G.; Saint-Maurice, P.F.; Ihmels, M. Parenting Styles and Home Obesogenic Environments. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 1411–1426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  63. Coccia, C.; Darling, C.A.; Rehm, M.; Cui, M.; Sathe, S.K. Adolescent Health, Stress and Life Satisfaction: The Paradox of Indulgent Parenting: Indulgent Parenting and Life Satisfaction. Stress Health 2012, 28, 211–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Mitchell, S.J.; See, H.M.; Tarkow, A.K.H.; Cabrera, N.; McFadden, K.E.; Shannon, J.D. Conducting Studies with Fathers: Challenges and Opportunities. Appl. Dev. Sci. 2007, 11, 239–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Davison, K.K.; Charles, J.N.; Khandpur, N.; Nelson, T.J. Fathers’ Perceived Reasons for Their Underrepresentation in Child Health Research and Strategies to Increase Their Involvement. Matern. Child Health J. 2017, 21, 267–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. Kern, R.M.; Jonyniene, J. Psychometric Properties of the Lithuanian Version of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ): Pilot Study. Fam. J. 2012, 20, 205–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Nutrients 14 05328 g001 550
Figure 1. Moderating effect of area of residence on the relationship between authoritarian fathers and adolescent overweight.
Figure 1. Moderating effect of area of residence on the relationship between authoritarian fathers and adolescent overweight.
Nutrients 14 05328 g001
Nutrients 14 05328 g002 550
Figure 2. Moderating effect of sex on the relationship between permissive fathers and adolescent overweight in urban areas.
Figure 2. Moderating effect of sex on the relationship between permissive fathers and adolescent overweight in urban areas.
Nutrients 14 05328 g002
Table
Table 1. General and weight characteristics of the study population 1,2.
Table 1. General and weight characteristics of the study population 1,2.
Study Population
Characteristics		Overall
(n = 695)		Sexp-ValueArea of Residence p-Value
Girls
n = 451
(65%)		 Boys
n = 244
(35%)		 Urban
n = 349
(50.2%)		 Rural
n = 346
(49.8%)
Age (years)14.9(1.7)14.9(1.7)14.9(1.6)0.87414.9(1.6)15.0(1.7)0.314
BMI (kg/m2)22.3(4.3)22.4(4.7)21.9(4.0)0.16722.2(4.3)22.3(4.6)0.929
Healthy weight (%)67.5-68.1-66.4-0.43669.1-65.9-0.659
Overweight/obese (%) 332.5-31.9-33.6-0.53230.9-32.5-0.079
1 Values are given as means (SD). 2 p-values were determined using independent sample t-tests for continuous measurements and chi-square for categorical variables. 3 Overweight includes adolescents categorized as overweight (BMI Z score for age ≥+1 and <+2) and obese (BMI Z score for age ≥+2).
Table
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of fathers’ and mothers’ perceived parenting styles according to adolescent weight classification, and for the total sample.
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of fathers’ and mothers’ perceived parenting styles according to adolescent weight classification, and for the total sample.
Parenting StyleFathers
(n = 695)		SDMothers
(n = 695)		SD
Healthy weight
 Authoritative3.07(1.06)3.42(0.97)
 Permissive2.18(0.76)2.36(0.76)
 Authoritarian1.88(0.61)2.09(0.64)
Overweight
 Authoritative3.08(1.06)3.47(0.94)
 Permissive2.20(0.78)2.39(0.79)
 Authoritarian1.87(0.56)2.09(0.66)
Total sample
 Authoritative3.07 a(1.06)3.43 a(0.96)
 Permissive2.19 b(0.77)2.36 b(0.77)
 Authoritarian1.88 c(0.59)2.08 c(0.65)
a, b, c The means with different superscripts in each column differ significantly (p < 0.001) unless otherwise indicated.
Table
Table 3. Summary of hierarchical logistic analyses predicting the influence of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles on overweight among urban and rural Costa Rican adolescents (n = 695) 1.
Table 3. Summary of hierarchical logistic analyses predicting the influence of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles on overweight among urban and rural Costa Rican adolescents (n = 695) 1.
VariableB2Standard ErrorWald Chi-Square Testp-Value 3Exp(B)495% CI for Exp(B)
Age−0.0880.0522.7990.0940.9160.8271.015
Sex (0 = Boys)−0.1040.1860.3120.5760.9010.6261.298
Area (0 = Urban)0.2420.1771.8690.1721.2740.9001.802
SES (0 = Low)0.0790.2420.1080.7421.0830.6741.739
Authoritative Fathers−0.2540.3360.5710.4450.7760.4011.499
Authoritarian Fathers−0.1590.3740.1810.6710.8530.4101.775
Permissive Fathers0.9680.4384.8700.0272.6321.1146.215
Authoritative Mothers−0.2390.3850.3840.5360.7880.371.676
Authoritarian Mothers−0.0390.3760.0110.9170.9620.4612.008
Permissive Mothers−0.3980.4170.9140.3390.6720.2971.519
Authoritative Fathers x Sex 50.7620.4193.3060.0692.1430.9424.875
Authoritarian Fathers x Sex0.0070.4830.0010.9881.0070.3902.597
Permissive Fathers x Sex−1.3670.5446.3130.0120.2550.0880.740
Authoritative Mothers x Sex−0.0130.4660.0010.9780.9880.3962.463
Authoritarian Mothers x Sex0.5420.4861.2440.2651.7190.6634.456
Permissive Mothers x Sex0.3430.5230.4310.5121.4100.5063.930
Authoritative Fathers x Area0.2030.5550.1340.7151.2250.4133.634
Authoritarian Fathers x Area1.4030.6604.5280.0334.0691.11714.821
Permissive Fathers x Area−1.6770.6855.9880.0140.1870.0490.716
Authoritative Mothers x Area0.5440.5970.8290.3621.7220.5355.547
Authoritarian Mothers x Area−0.8390.6191.8370.1750.4320.1281.454
Permissive Mothers x Area1.1310.6183.3420.0683.0980.92210.41
Authoritative Fathers x Sex x Area−0.6010.6570.8350.3610.5480.1511.989
Authoritarian Fathers x Sex x Area−1.0070.8301.4720.2250.3650.0721.859
Permissive Fathers x Sex x Area1.8450.8165.1130.0246.3281.27831.332
Authoritative Mothers x Sex x Area−0.5250.7060.5530.4570.5920.1482.361
Authoritarian Mothers x Sex x Area−0.2130.7930.0720.7880.8080.1713.822
Permissive Mothers x Sex x Area−0.7780.7561.0570.3040.4600.1042.023
1 Parenting styles were centered on their means. Sex, area, and SES variables were dummy coded as appropriate. 2 B = coefficient for the constant in the model. 3 A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. 4 Exp(B) = exponentiation of B coefficient (Odds Ratio). 5 x = interaction between variables.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Monge-Rojas, R.; Smith-Castro, V.; O’Connor, T.M.; Vargas-Quesada, R.; Reyes-Fernández, B. Association between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Parenting Styles and the Risk of Overweight/Obesity among Adolescents in San José Province, Costa Rica. Nutrients 2022, 14, 5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245328

AMA Style

Monge-Rojas R, Smith-Castro V, O’Connor TM, Vargas-Quesada R, Reyes-Fernández B. Association between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Parenting Styles and the Risk of Overweight/Obesity among Adolescents in San José Province, Costa Rica. Nutrients. 2022; 14(24):5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245328

Chicago/Turabian Style

Monge-Rojas, Rafael, Vanessa Smith-Castro, Teresia M. O’Connor, Rulamán Vargas-Quesada, and Benjamín Reyes-Fernández. 2022. "Association between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Parenting Styles and the Risk of Overweight/Obesity among Adolescents in San José Province, Costa Rica" Nutrients 14, no. 24: 5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245328

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop