Dietary Iron Intake and Biomarkers of Iron Status in Slovenian Population: Results of SI.Menu/Nutrihealth Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects and Study Design
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. General Questionnaire
2.2.2. Dietary Records and Iron Intake
2.2.3. Iron Status
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Definition of Cut-Offs for Iron Intake and Status
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Adolescents N (%) | Adults N (%) | Elderly N (%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | ||
10–17 years | 10–17 years | 10–17 years | 18–64 years | 18–64 years | 18–50 years | 51–64 years | 65–75 years | 65–75 years | 65–75 years | |
SI.Menu N (%) | 468 (100) | 238 (50.9) | 230 (49.1) | 364 (100) | 173 (47.5) | 121 (33.2) | 70 (19.3) | 416 (100) | 213 (51.2) | 203 (48.8) |
Usual daily iron intake | ||||||||||
Mean [mg/day] (95%CI) | 16.7 (16.1–17.2) | 18.4 (17.7–19.2) | 14.7 (14.1–15.4) | 16.0 (15.4–16.5) | 17.7 (16.9–18.6) | 14.1 (13.3–15.0) | 14.2 (13.1–15.3) | 16.0 (15.1–16.8) | 17.1 (16.3–17.9) | 14.9 (13.6–16.2) |
Q25 [mg/day] | 13.1 | 14.9 | 11.6 | 12.5 | 13.9 | 11.3 | 12.1 | 12.3 | 13.9 | 11.6 |
Median [mg/day] | 16.3 | 18.0 | 13.9 | 15.5 | 17.7 | 13.8 | 13.6 | 15.5 | 17.3 | 14.0 |
Q75 [mg/day] | 19.4 | 21.0 | 17.1 | 19.2 | 20.6 | 16.6 | 15.6 | 18.7 | 18.9 | 17.5 |
Mean (95%CI) [mg/1000 kcal/day] | 6.3 (6.1–6.5) | 6.2 (6.0–6.5) | 6.4 (6.2–6.6) | 6.3 (6.2–6.5) | 6.4 (6.2–6.6) | 6.1 (5.9–6.4) | 6.5 (6.2–6.8) | 6.7 (6.5–6.8) | 6.9 (6.7–7.1) | 6.5 (6.3–6.7) |
Prevalence of inadequate daily iron intake (%) | ||||||||||
D-A-CH (DRI) * (95% CI) | 43.7 (36.7–51.1) | 17.1 (12.1–23.6) | 72.6 (64.9–79.1) | 33.4 (28.3–39.0) | 8.8 (5.2–14.3) | 76.3 (67.0–83.6) | 22.8 (13.4–36.2) | 13.7 (10.1–18.4) | 6.1 (3.2–11.3) | 20.7 (14.8–28.1) |
EFSA (AR) ** (95% CI) | 1.3 (0.6–2.7) | 0.7 (0.2–2.4) | 1.8 (0.6–4.8) | 0.3 (0.1–1.4) | 0 | 0.4 (0.01–3.4) | 1.2 (0.2–8.0) | 0.1 (0.01–0.8) | 0.2 (0.03–1.8) | 0 |
EFSA (PRI) *** (95% CI) | 18.6 (14.6–23.4) | 7.0 (4.1–11.6) | 31.1 (23.8–39.5 | 29.8 (24.9–35.2) | 7.3 (4.2–12.4) | 69.2 (59.5–77.41) | 19.5 (10.7–32.8) | 13.8 (10.1–18.5) | 7.5 (4.1–13.4) | 19.6 (13.9–26.8) |
Variable | Adolescents (10–17 Years) | Adults (18–64 Years) | Elderly (65–74 Years) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prevalence (%) | Crude OR (CI) | Adjusted OR (CI) | Prevalence (%) | Crude OR (CI) | Adjusted OR (CI) | Prevalence (%) | Crude OR | Adjusted OR | ||
Unweighted N (%) | 208 (44.4) | 124 (34.1) | 62 (14.9) | |||||||
Sex | male | 47 (19.8) | 1 | 1 | 16 (9.3) | 1 | 1 | 14 (6.6) | 1 | 1 |
female * | 161 (70.0) | 9.48 (6.10–14.87) | 10.71 (6.79–16.90) | 94 (77.7) | 34.16 (16.73–70.96) | 51.18 (20.58–127.57) | 48 (23.7) | 4.40 (2.28–8.94) | 3.69 (1.77–7.70) | |
female ** | 14 (20.0) | 2.45 (1.03–5.73) | 2.67 (1.02–7.02) | |||||||
Residential area | rural | 112 (41.5) | 1 | 1 | 61 (30.2) | 1 | 1 | 28 (12.2) | 1 | 1 |
intermediate | 35 (46.1) | 1.20 (0.70–2.07) | 1.15 (0.63–2.11) | 21 (37.5) | 1.39 (0.71–2.68) | 1.50 (0.58–3.88) | 12 (16.9) | 1.46 (0.63–3.18) | 1.04 (0.47–2.32) | |
urban | 61 (50.0) | 1.41 (0.90–2.22) | 1.68 (1.00–2.82) | 42 (39.6) | 1.52 (0.90–2.55) | 1.55 (0.73–3.32) | 22 (19.0) | 1.68 (0.87–3.22) | 1.42 (0.70–2.88) | |
Education | no university degree | n.a. | n.a. | 80 (32.1) | 1 | 1 | 53 (15.5) | 1 | 1 | |
university degree | 44 (38.3) | 1.31 (0.80–2.13) | 0.65 (0.29–1.46) | 9 (12.2) | 0.76 (0.31–1.65) | 0.52 (0.19–1.38) | ||||
Financial status | below average | n.a. | n.a. | 35 (29.7) | 1 | 1 | 44 (16.4) | 1 | 1 | |
above average | 69 (36.5) | 1.36 (0.81–2.31) | 0.85 (0.39–1.88) | 12 (11.2) | 0.65 (0.30–1.31) | 0.68 (0.32–1.43) | ||||
BMI | normal | 166 (55.2) | 1 | 1 | 67 (45.3) | 1 | 1 | 19 (17.6) | 1 | 1 |
overweight | 73 (43.7) | 0.95 (0.64–1.42) | 1.16 (0.74–1.83) | 57 (26.4) | 0.47 (0.27–0.69) | 0.48 (0.24–0.97) | 43 (14.0) | 0.76 (0.41–1.46) | 0.92 (0.46–1.85) | |
IPAQ | low intensity | 38 (35.2) | 1 | 1 | 39 (30.7) | 1 | 1 | 15 (11.0) | 1 | 1 |
moderate intensity | 70 (49.7) | 1.82 (1.05–3.14) | 1.40 (0.76–2.56) | 46 (42.6) | 1.67 (0.95–2.97) | 1.70 (0.75–3.86) | 31 (23.3) | 2.47 (1.21–5.20) | 1.99 (0.98–4.03) | |
high intensity | 96 (44.9) | 1.50 (0.91–2.49) | 1.67 (0.95–2.92) | 37 (29.6) | 0.95 (0.53–1.68) | 0.78 (0.34–1.79) | 16 (11.4) | 1.05 (0.46–2.39) | 0.91 (0.40–2.03) | |
Employment | employed | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 80 (35.4) | 1 | 1 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. |
unemployed | 18 (42.9) | 1.37 (0.65–2.81) | 1.96 (0.61–6.34) | |||||||
student | 14 (43.8) | 1.42 (0.62–3.20) | 0.55 (0.14–2.12) | |||||||
retired | 12 (18.8) | 0.42 (0.19–0.86) | 1.45 (1.49–4.31) | |||||||
Smoking status | non-smoker | 190 (43.4) | 1 | 1 | 75 (37.7) | 1 | 1 | 37 (16.0) | 1 | 1 |
current, occasional, ex-smoker | 18 (60.0) | 1.96 (0.87–4.57) | 3.66 (1.51–8.88) | 49 (29.7) | 0.70 (0.44–1.11) | 0.74 (0.34–1.52) | 25 (13.5) | 0.82 (0.45–1.47) | 1.18 (0.59–2.35) | |
Medical diet | no special diet | 204 (44.8) | 1 | 1 | 116 (34.9) | 1 | 1 | 54 (14.8) | 1 | 1 |
medical/weight loss | 4 (30.8) | 0.55 (0.12–2.00) | 0.64 (0.15–2.65) | 8 (25.0) | 0.62 (0.23–1.49) | 0.52 (0.36–1.52) | 8 (15.7) | 1.07 (0.41–2.47) | 1.03 (0.43–2.47) | |
Behavioural diet | no diet | 197 (43.2) | 1 | n.a. | 118 (33.2) | 1 | n.a. | 61 (14.8) | 1. | n.a. |
vegetarian/vegan | 11 (91.7) | 14.46 (2.06–624.7) | n.a. | 6 (75.0) | 6.05 (1.06–61.87) | n.a. | 1 (33.3) | 2.88 (0.05–56.02) | n.a. |
Adults N (%) | Elderly N (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | ||
18–64 years | 18–64 years | 18–50 years | 51–64 years | 65–75 years | 65–75 years | 65–75 years | |
Nutrihealth N (%) | 124 (100) | 57 (46.0) | 38 (30.6) | 29 (23.3) | 156 (100) | 76 (48.7) | 80 (51.3) |
Haemoglobin [g/L] | |||||||
Mean [g/L] (95%CI) | 146.7 (144.3–149.2) | 154.0 (151.2–156.9) | 139.0 (135.6–142.4) | 139.0 (134.4–143.5) | 145.1 (143.1–147.1) | 152.0 (149.3–154.7) | 138.9 (136.7–141.1) |
Q25 [g/L] | 139.0 | 149.0 | 131.0 | 133.0 | 136.0 | 145.0 | 132.5 |
Median [g/L] | 147.0 | 153.0 | 138.0 | 142.0 | 145.0 | 154.0 | 139.0 |
Q75 [g/L] | 153.0 | 159.0 | 144.0 | 145.0 | 154.0 | 159.0 | 145.5 |
Prevalence of haemoglobin (%) (95% CI) below 120 and 130 g/L | |||||||
<120 g/L | 1.1 (0.2–4.3) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 6.9 (1.7–24.4) | 1.3 (0.3–5.2) | 1.4 (0.1–9.2) | 1.3 (0.1–8.9) |
<130 g/L | 7.5 (3.9–13.8) | 1.3 (0.1–8.7) | 14.2 (6.0–30.5) | 13.8 (5.1–32.1) | 10.3 (6.2–16.4) | 4.1 (1.3–12.1) | 15.7 (9.1–25.9) |
Serum iron [µmol/L] | |||||||
Mean (95%CI) | 17.9 (16.5–19.2) | 18.8 (16.8–20.7) | 17.0 (14.7–19.2) | 16.1 (14.1–18.1) | 19.3 (18.4–20.2) | 21.2 (19.8–22.6) | 17.6 (16.5–18.8) |
Median | 17.6 | 18.4 | 16.5 | 14.4 | 18.8 | 20.8 | 16.8 |
Prevalence of serum iron (%) (95% CI) below 13 µmol/L | |||||||
<13 µmol/L | 19.9 (13.5–28.4) | 10.4 (4.5–22.4) | 32.0 (18.8–48.8) | 27.6 (14.1–46.8) | 8.0 (4.6–13.7) | 4.0 (1.3–11.8) | 11.7 (6.1–21.1) |
Serum Ferritin [µg/L] | |||||||
Mean (95%CI) | 121.7 (98.7–144.8) | 158.1 (121.2–194.9) | 68.2 (40.9–95.4) | 90.7 (74.3–107.1) | 170.5 (144.7–196.2) | 222.6 (176.0–269.2) | 124.0 (103.2–144.6) |
Median | 80 | 121 | 51 | 91 | 126 | 162 | 90 |
Prevalence of serum ferritin (%) (95% CI) below 15, 30, and 100 µg/L, and above 300 and 500 µg/L | |||||||
<15 µg/L | 3.7 (1.5–8.9) | 0 | 10.1 (3.7–24.6) | 3.4 (0.4–21.7) | 0.6 (0.1–4.7) | 0 | 1.3 (0.1–8.8) |
<30 µg/L | 11.6 (7.0–18.5) | 3.5 (1.1–10.8) | 27.2 (15.3–43.7) | 6.9 (1.6–24.4) | 7.9 (4.5–13.4) | 6.6 (2.7–15.0) | 9.1 (4.4–18.0) |
<100 µg/L | 57.7 (47.8–67.0) | 42.3 (28.9–57.0) | 86.2 (70.3–94.3) | 58.6 (39.9–75.2) | 40.2 (32.7–48.1) | 26.3 (17.6–37.4) | 52.5 (41.5–63.3) |
>300 µg/L | 10.1 (5.5–17.9) | 17.7 (9.3–31.0) | 2.4 (0.3–15.9) | 0 | 13.4 (8.9–19.8) | 22.4 (14.3–33.2) | 5.1 (1.9–13.1) |
>500 µg/L | 3.4 (1.2–9.7) | 5.1 (1.5–16.4) | 2.4 (0.3–15.9) | 0 | 3.7 (1.7–8.3) | 7.9 (3.6–16.6) | 0 |
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Lavriša, Ž.; Hristov, H.; Hribar, M.; Koroušić Seljak, B.; Gregorič, M.; Blaznik, U.; Zaletel, K.; Oblak, A.; Osredkar, J.; Kušar, A.; et al. Dietary Iron Intake and Biomarkers of Iron Status in Slovenian Population: Results of SI.Menu/Nutrihealth Study. Nutrients 2022, 14, 5144. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235144
Lavriša Ž, Hristov H, Hribar M, Koroušić Seljak B, Gregorič M, Blaznik U, Zaletel K, Oblak A, Osredkar J, Kušar A, et al. Dietary Iron Intake and Biomarkers of Iron Status in Slovenian Population: Results of SI.Menu/Nutrihealth Study. Nutrients. 2022; 14(23):5144. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235144
Chicago/Turabian StyleLavriša, Živa, Hristo Hristov, Maša Hribar, Barbara Koroušić Seljak, Matej Gregorič, Urška Blaznik, Katja Zaletel, Adrijana Oblak, Joško Osredkar, Anita Kušar, and et al. 2022. "Dietary Iron Intake and Biomarkers of Iron Status in Slovenian Population: Results of SI.Menu/Nutrihealth Study" Nutrients 14, no. 23: 5144. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235144