The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Cardiometabolic Health Blood Markers
2.2. Self-Reported Dietary Compliance, Mood, Hunger and Satiety Levels and Post-Intervention Intentions
2.3. Statistics
2.3.1. Cardiometabolic Health Data
2.3.2. Self-Reported Dietary Compliance, Mood, Hunger and Satiety Levels and Post-Intervention Intentions
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Baseline Cardiometabolic Blood Markers
3.3. Cardiometabolic Blood Markers before and after Diet and Exercise Invervention
3.4. Self-Reported Dietary Compliance, Hunger, Craving and Mood Levels during the Intervention Period
3.4.1. Internal Consistency
3.4.2. Self-Reported Dietary Compliance, Hunger, Cravings and Mood in IFT and CERT Participants
3.4.3. Self-Reported Dietary Compliance Hunger, Cravings and Mood Levels in IFT Participants on Fasting Versus Fed Days
4. Discussion
4.1. Cardiometabolic Biomarkers
4.2. Dietary Compliance, Mood, Hunger and Cravings
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Questions Included within Each Survey Category | |
---|---|
Hunger (maximum score possible 40) | 1. How hungry do you feel? (+ve) 2. How satisfied do you feel? (−ve) 3. How full do you feel? (−ve) 4. How much do you think you can eat? (+ve) |
Cravings (maximum score possible 40) | 1. Would you like something sweet? (+ve) 2. Would you like something salty? (+ve) 3. Would you like something savoury? (+ve) 4. Would you like something fatty? (+ve) |
Energy levels (maximum possible score 40) | 1. How alert do you feel? (+ve) 2. How much of an effort is it to do anything? (−ve) 3. How weary do you feel? (−ve) 4. How sleepy do you feel? (−ve) |
Mood (maximum score possible 40) | 1. How sad do you feel? (−ve) 2. How tense do you feel? (−ve) 3. How happy do you feel? (+ve) 4. How calm do you feel? (+ve) |
Compliance (maximum score possible 10) | 1. How compliant do you feel you were with your diet today? (+ve) |
Baseline Variable | IFT (n = 17; 9 Males, 8 Females) | CERT (n = 17; 8 Males, 9 Females) | p-Value a |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 24.7 (4.8) | 23.2 (3.9) | 0.31 |
Height (m) | 1.72 (0.1) | 1.71 (0.1) | 0.82 |
Weight (kg) | 80.1 (13.8) | 79.6 (13.5) | 0.92 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 27.0 (2.7) | 27.1 (2.9) | 0.93 |
Baseline Variable | IFT Males (n = 8) | CERT Males (n = 8) | IFT Females (n = 7) | CERT Females (n = 8) | IFT Group (n = 15) | CERT Group (n = 16) | p-Value (Group) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
hsCRP (mg/L) | 0.94 (0.64) | 1.41 (1.63) | 2.00 (1.82) | 2.43 (1.72) | 1.39 (1.34) | 1.92 (1.69) | 0.26 2 |
TC (mmol/L) | 4.49 (0.79) | 4.18 (0.60) | 5.17 (1.02) | 4.18 (0.75) | 4.81 (0.94) | 4.18 (0.66) | 0.04 1 |
Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 0.94 (0.26) | 1.20 (0.51) | 1.01 (0.36) | 0.90 (0.36) | 0.97 (0.30) | 1.05 (0.45) | 0.86 2 |
HDL-C (mmol/L) | 1.35 (0.47) | 1.15 (0.32) | 1.83 (0.46) | 1.57 (0.43) | 1.57 (0.51) | 1.36 (0.42) | 0.22 |
LDL-C (mmol/L) | 2.71 (0.63) | 2.49 (0.60) | 2.86 (0.78) | 2.19 (0.45) | 2.78 (0.68) | 2.34 (0.53) | 0.05 |
Glucose (mmol/L) | 4.88 (0.33) | 4.90 (0.35) | 4.84 (0.42) | 4.76 (0.52) | 4.86 (0.36) | 4.83 (0.44) | 0.84 |
Insulin (mU/L) 3 | 8.55 (4.54) | 10.26 (6.22) | 10.40 (2.73) | 11.89 (7.69) | 9.41 (3.80) | 11.08 (6.81) | 0.59 |
HOMA-IR 3 | 1.88 (1.07) | 2.29 (1.60) | 2.27 (0.75) | 2.61 (2.02) | 2.06 (0.92) | 2.45 (1.77) | 0.64 |
Diet variable | Group | Baseline | Post Intervention | Δ | Δ (%) | P (Group) | P (Time) | P (I) | P (S) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TC (mmol/L) 5 | IFT group (n = 15) | 4.81 (0.94) | 4.18 (0.71) | −0.63 | −13.1 | 0.20 | <0.001 1 | 0.01 2 | 0.92 |
CERT group (n = 16) | 4.18 (0.66) | 3.98 (0.67) | −0.20 | 4.8 | |||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 4.49 (0.79) | 4.03 (0.68) | −0.46 | −10.2 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 4.18 (0.60) | 3.79 (0.44) | −0.39 | −9.3 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 5.17 (1.02) | 4.36 (0.76) | −0.81 | −15.7 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 4.18 (0.75) | 4.18 (0.82) | 0.00 | 0.0 | |||||
IFT group (n = 15) | 2.78 (0.68) | 2.26 (0.53) | −0.52 | −18.7 | 0.19 | <0.001 1 | 0.01 2 | 0.20 | |
LDL-C (mmol/L) 5 | CERT group (n = 16) | 2.34 (0.53) | 2.17 (0.46) | −0.17 | −7.3 | ||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 2.71 (0.63) | 2.23 (0.51) | −0.48 | −17.7 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 2.49 (0.60) | 2.10 (0.48) | −0.39 | −15.7 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 2.86 (0.78) | 2.30 (0.58) | −0.56 | −19.6 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 2.19 (0.45) | 2.24 (0.47) | 0.05 | 2.3 | |||||
IFT group (n = 15) | 1.57 (0.51) | 1.47 (0.41) | −0.10 | −6.4 | 0.23 | 0.049 1 | 0.08 | 0.001 3 | |
HDL-C (mmol/L) | CERT group (n = 16) | 1.36 (0.42) | 1.35 (0.38) | −0.01 | −0.7 | ||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 1.35 (0.47) | 1.38 (0.44) | 0.03 | 2.2 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 1.15 (0.32) | 1.21 (0.35) | 0.06 | 5.2 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 1.83 (0.46) | 1.58 (0.38) | −0.25 | −13.7 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 1.57 (0.43) | 1.50 (0.37) | −0.07 | −4.6 | |||||
IFT group (n = 15) | 4.86 (0.36) | 4.94 (0.30) | 0.08 | 1.6 | 0.91 | 0.09 | 0.55 | 0.35 | |
Glucose (mmol/L) | CERT group (n = 16) | 4.83 (0.44) | 4.99 (0.34) | 0.16 | 3.3 | ||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 4.88 (0.33) | 4.95 (0.28) | 0.07 | 1.4 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 4.90 (0.35) | 4.94 (0.27) | 0.04 | 0.8 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 4.84 (0.42) | 4.93 (0.32) | 0.09 | 1.9 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 4.76 (0.52) | 5.05 (0.41) | 0.29 | 6.1 | |||||
IFT group (n = 15) | 9.41 (3.80) | 8.89 (2.76) | −0.52 | −5.5 | 0.95 | 0.21 | 0.29 | 0.79 | |
Insulin (mU/L) 4 | CERT group (n = 16) | 11.08 (6.81) | 8.71 (4.94) | −2.37 | −21.4 | ||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 8.55 (4.54) | 7.38 (2.13) | −1.17 | −13.7 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 10.26 (6.22) | 8.56 (5.59) | −1.70 | −16.6 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 10.40 (2.73) | 10.61 (2.43) | 0.21 | 2.0 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 11.89 (7.69) | 8.85 (4.59) | −3.04 | −25.6 | |||||
IFT group (n = 15) | 2.06 (0.92) | 1.95 (0.60) | −0.11 | −5.3 | 0.96 | 0.36 | 0.36 | 0.73 | |
HOMA-IR 4 | CERT group (n = 16) | 2.45 (1.77) | 1.99 (1.30) | −0.46 | −18.8 | ||||
IFT males (n = 8) | 1.88 (1.07) | 1.62 (0.49) | −0.26 | −13.8 | |||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 2.29 (1.60) | 1.93 (1.38) | −0.36 | −15.7 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 2.27 (0.75) | 2.32 (0.51) | 0.05 | 2.2 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 2.61 (2.02) | 2.05 (1.31) | −0.56 | −21.5 | |||||
Non-normal variables | Group | Baseline | Post Intervention | Δ | Δ (%) | Signed rank Wilcoxon test (paired samples) | |||
Group/sex | Diet group | ||||||||
hsCRP (mg/L) | IFT group (n = 15) | 1.39 (1.34) | 1.39 (1.66) | 0.00 | 0.0 | Z = −1.13, p = 0.26 | Z = 0.00, p = 1.00 | ||
CERT group (n = 17) | 1.92 (1.69)) | 1.21 (1.07) | −0.71 | −37.0 | Z = −1.16, p = 0.25 | Z = −1.73, p = 0.08 | |||
IFT males (n = 8) | 0.94 (0.64) | 0.59 (0.35) | −0.35 | −37.2 | Z = 0.94, p = 0.35 | ||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 1.41 (1.63) | 1.07 (1.26) | −0.34 | −24.1 | Z = −1.36, p = 0.17 | ||||
IFT Females (n = 6) | 2.00 (1.82) | 2.45 (2.14) | 0.45 | 25.6 | |||||
CERT females (n = 7) | 2.43 (1.72) | 1.36 (0.91) | −1.07 | −44.0 | |||||
Triglycerides (mmol/L) | IFT group (n = 17) | 0.97 (0.30) | 0.98 (0.38) | 0.01 | 1.0 | Z = −0.53, p = 0.60 | Z = −0.36, p = 0.71 | ||
CERT group (n = 17) | 1.05 (0.45) | 1.02 (0.41) | −0.03 | −2.9 | Z = −1.02, p = 0.31 | Z = −0.35, p = 0.73 | |||
IFT males (n = 8) | 0.94 (0.26) | 0.93 (0.35) | −0.01 | −1.1 | Z = −0.18, p = 0.85 | ||||
CERT males (n = 7) | 1.20 (0.51) | 1.06 (0.47) | −0.14 | −11.7 | Z = −0.84, p = 0.40 | ||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 1.01 (0.36) | 1.04 (0.44) | 0.03 | 3.0 | |||||
CERT females (n = 8) | 0.90 (0.36) | 0.98 (0.37) | 0.08 | 8.9 |
Survey Variable | Group | Week 1 | Week 6 | Week 12 | Δ | Δ (%) | P (Group) | P (Time) | P (I) | P (S) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hunger (max. 40) | IFT group (n = 17) | 14.7 (3.9) | 13.6 (4.4) | 13.7 (5.2) | −1.0 | −6.8 | 0.63 | 0.22 | 0.49 | 0.03 2 |
CERT group (n = 17) | 15.0 (5.2) | 11.3 (5.1) | 13.3 (6.4) | −1.7 | −11.3 | |||||
IFT males (n = 9) | 16.5 (3.3) | 15.2 (4.9) | 13.9 (5.4) | −2.6 | −15.8 | |||||
CERT males (n = 8) | 15.2 (4.6) | 11.4 (3.3) | 14.1 (4.7) | −1.1 | −7.2 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 12.8 (3.8) | 11.8 (3.1) | 13.6 (5.4) | 2.1 | 6.3 | |||||
CERT females (n = 9) | 14.9 (5.8) | 11.2 (6.5) | 12.6 (7.8) | −2.3 | −15.4 | |||||
Cravings (max. 40) | IFT group (n = 17) | 26.5 (5.0) | 30.2 (6.1) | 28.7 (8.2) | 2.2 | 8.3 | ||||
CERT group (n = 17) | 28.1 (6.1) | 31.4 (7.0) | 31.0 (4.6) | 2.9 | 10.3 | |||||
IFT males (n = 9) | 25.2 (4.9) | 29.2 (7.3) | 27.9 (5.2) | −2.7 | −10.7 | 0.46 | 0.08 | 0.96 | 0.20 | |
CERT males (n = 8) | 29.3 (6.1) | 30.9 (8.4) | 30.6 (5.0) | 1.3 | 4.4 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 28.0 (5.0) | 31.4 (4.7) | 29.5 (10.8) | 1.5 | 5.4 | |||||
CERT females (n = 9) | 27.1 (6.4) | 31.9 (6.0) | 31.3 (4.6) | 4.2 | 15.52 | |||||
Energy levels (max. 40) | IFT group (n = 17) | 20.4 (4.6) | 22.2 (4.5) | 20.4 (6.8) | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||||
CERT group (n = 17) | 20.1 (4.9) | 18.8 (4.1) | 18.9 (7.7) | −1.2 | −6.0 | |||||
IFT males (n = 9) | 21.1 (4.0) | 23.2 (3.7) | 20.3 (5.5) | −0.8 | −3.8 | 0.61 | 0.77 | 0.37 | 0.18 | |
CERT males (n = 8) | 21.5 (5.2) | 20.2 (5.2) | 21.7 (9.0) | 0.2 | 0.9 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 19.7 (5.3) | 21.0 (5.3) | 20.6 (8.3) | 0.9 | 4.6 | |||||
CERT females (n = 9) | 18.9 (4.7) | 17.6 (2.3) | 16.4 (5.8) | −2.5 | −13.2 | |||||
Mood (max. 40) | IFT group (n = 17) | 29.6 (4.5) | 29.0 (3.8) | 30.7 (4.5) | 1.1 | 3.7 | 0.06 | 0.02 1 | 0.14 | 0.07 |
CERT group (n = 17) | 25.6 (5.8) | 24.0 (7.6) | 27.8 (6.8) | 2.2 | 8.6 | |||||
IFT males (n = 9) | 30.0 (5.7) | 29.8 (3.6) | 31.1 (4.8) | 1.1 | 3.7 | |||||
CERT males (n = 8) | 27.6 (3.0) | 24.0 (7.4) | 30.7 (2.8) | 3.1 | 11.2 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 29.2 (3.0) | 28.2 (4.2) | 30.2 (4.5) | 1.0 | 3.4 | |||||
CERT females (n = 9) | 23.8 (7.1) | 24.1 (8.1) | 25.3 (8.5) | 1.5 | 6.3 | |||||
Compliance (max. 10) | IFT group (n = 17) | 8.1 (1.1) | 8.4 (1.2) | 8.7 (1.6) | 0.6 | 7.4 | ||||
CERT group (n = 17) | 8.1 (1.0) | 7.6 (1.8) | 8.1 (1.3) | 0.0 | 0.0 | |||||
IFT males (n = 9) | 8.3 (0.8) | 8.8 (1.4) | 9.4 (0.8) | 1.1 | 13.3 | 0.25 | 0.31 | 0.90 | 0.08 | |
CERT males (n = 8) | 8.5 (0.8) | 7.8 (1.6) | 8.3 (1.6) | −0.2 | −2.4 | |||||
IFT females (n = 8) | 8.0 (1.2) | 8.1 (0.8) | 8.0 (2.0) | 0.0 | 0.0 | |||||
CERT females (n = 9) | 7.7 (1.0) | 7.5 (2.0) | 7.8 (1.1) | 0.1 | 1.3 |
Survey Variable | Group | Week 1 | Week 6 | Week 12 | Δ | Δ (%) | P (C) | P (Time) | P (CS) | P (S) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hunger (max. 40) | IFT Males (n = 9) fed | 11.2 (3.2) | 9.7 (3.6) | 9.2 (3.5) | −2.0 | −17.9 | <0.001 1 | 0.32 | 0.34 | 0.01 2 |
IFT Males (n = 9) fasted | 26.5 (5.2) | 27.0 (6.3) | 26.7 (7.6) | 0.2 | 0.8 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 8) fed | 7.7 (3.1) | 6.9 (4.0) | 7.6 (2.7) | −0.1 | −1.3 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 9) fasted | 23.6 (6.0) | 21.8 (6.4) | 22.4 (5.3) | −0.8 | −3.4 | |||||
Cravings (max 40.) | IFT Males (n = 9) fed | 11.9 (4.6) | 7.0 (4.9) | 8.2 (4.8) | −3.7 | −31.1 | <0.001 1 | 0.21 | 0.94 | 0.04 2 |
IFT Males (n = 9) fasted | 19.1 (5.4) | 18.6 (5.3) | 21.8 (6.7) | 2.7 | 14.1 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 8) fed | 7.8 (4.7) | 4.6 (3.1) | 4.5 (3.6) | −3.3 | −42.3 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 9) fasted | 19.9 (7.1) | 17.4 (8.7) | 17.6 (10.6) | −2.3 | −11.6 | |||||
Energy levels (max. 40) | IFT Males (n = 9) fed | 21.8 (4.7) | 23.2 (4.6) | 21.8 (4.8) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.31 | 0.27 | 0.66 | 0.69 |
IFT Males (n = 9) fasted | 19.3 (5.4) | 22.2 (5.0) | 19.4 (7.4) | 0.1 | 0.5 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 8) fed | 20.9 (6.7) | 21.6 (5.5) | 20.8 (7.2) | −0.1 | −0.5 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 9) fasted | 17.8 (3.7) | 19.6 (5.8) | 20.4 (7.9) | 2.6 | 14.6 | |||||
Mood (max. 40) | IFT Males (n = 9) fed | 30.7 (4.7) | 30.4 (3.7) | 30.0 (3.8) | −0.7 | −2.3 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.59 | 0.06 |
IFT Males (n = 9) fasted | 28.5 (6.7) | 29.1 (4.2) | 28.0 (4.8) | −0.5 | −1.8 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 8) fed | 30.0 (2.8) | 29.1 (3.2) | 28.4 (3.8) | −1.6 | −5.3 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 9) fasted | 26.4 (5.9) | 26.5 (4.4) | 27.4 (5.7) | 1.0 | 3.8 | |||||
Compliance (max. 10) | IFT Males (n = 9) fed | 8.1 (0.7) | 8.6 (0.9) | 8.7 (0.9) | 0.6 | 7.4 | 0.06 | 0.26 | 0.68 | 0.02 2 |
IFT Males (n = 9) fasted | 9.1 (1.1) | 9.1 (1.2) | 9.5 (0.6) | 0.4 | 4.4 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 8) fed | 7.9 (1.4) | 7.9 (0.6) | 8.0 (1.2) | 0.1 | 1.3 | |||||
IFT Females (n = 9) fasted | 8.6 (1.2) | 8.4 (1.9) | 8.3 (2.3) | −0.3 | −3.5 |
Survey Variable | Hunger | Cravings | Energy Levels | Mood | Compliance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CERT | |||||
Hunger | 1.00 | −0.52 1 | 0.04 | −0.39 1 | −0.26 1 |
Cravings | 1.00 | −0.07 | −0.15 2 | −0.33 1 | |
Energy Levels | 1.00 | 0.51 1 | 0.11 | ||
Mood | 1.00 | 0.34 1 | |||
Compliance | 1.00 | ||||
IFT | |||||
Hunger | 1.00 | −0.71 1 | 0.10 | −0.12 | −0.05 |
Cravings | 1.00 | 0.02 | 0.10 | −0.02 | |
Energy Levels | 1.00 | 0.54 1 | 0.06 | ||
Mood | 1.00 | 0.26 1 | |||
Compliance | 1.00 |
How Easy Was It to Comply with Your Diet? (0 = Not Easy at All 10 = Extremely Easy) | Mean Score (SD) | p-Value |
---|---|---|
IFT | 6.6 (1.8) | 0.36 |
CERT | 7.1 (1.3) | |
Would you have preferred to have been in the other diet group? | Yes | No |
IFT | 4 | 13 |
CERT | 3 | 14 |
Will you continue with your diet after the intervention period has finished? | Yes | No |
IFT | 14 * | 3 |
CERT | 15 * | 2 |
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Keenan, S.; Cooke, M.B.; Chen, W.S.; Wu, S.; Belski, R. The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3071. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14153071
Keenan S, Cooke MB, Chen WS, Wu S, Belski R. The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial. Nutrients. 2022; 14(15):3071. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14153071
Chicago/Turabian StyleKeenan, Stephen, Matthew B. Cooke, Won Sun Chen, Sam Wu, and Regina Belski. 2022. "The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial" Nutrients 14, no. 15: 3071. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14153071