Dietary Plant Sterols and Phytosterol-Enriched Margarines and Their Relationship with Cardiovascular Disease among Polish Men and Women: The WOBASZ II Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Group
2.2. Food Intake and Nutritional Assessment
2.3. Assessment of Healthy Diet Index (HDI) Score
2.4. Assessment of Dietary Phytosterol Intake and the Intake of Plant Sterols from Enriched Margarine
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Trait | Men n = 2554 | Women n = 3136 | Total n = 5690 |
---|---|---|---|
Age (year), mean ± SD | 48.79 ± 16.27 | 50.23 ± 16.54 | 49.58 ± 16.43 |
BMI (kg/m2), mean ± SD | 27.42 ± 4.55 | 26.96 ± 5.65 | 27.17 ± 5.19 |
CVD, (%) | 19.34 | 20.54 | 20.00 |
Hypertension, (%) 1 | 49.56 | 41.69 | 45.22 |
Hypercholesterolemia, (%) 2 | 68.86 | 66.03 | 67.30 |
Diabetes, (%) 3 | 11.86 | 9.96 | 10.82 |
Men | Women | Total | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 2554 | n = 3136 | n = 5690 | ||||
Mean (95% CI) | p | Mean (95% CI) | p | Mean (95% CI) | p | |
Total plant sterol intake from food (mg/d) | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
20–44 | 344.3 (333.0–351.9) | <0.0001 | 258.5 (251.7–265.2) | <0.0001 | 300.0 (294.3–305.6) | <0.0001 |
45–64 | 323.0 (313.1–332.8) | 263.1 (256.5–269.7) | 293.5 (287.8–299.2) | |||
65+ | 264.1 (249.7–278.4) | 217.8 (208.5–227.1) | 242.5 (234.3–250.7) | |||
Diabetes (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 323.3 (316.6–330.1) | 0.0379 | 253.6 (249.0–258.2) | 0.1289 | 288.4 (284.4–292.4) | 0.0077 |
yes | 301.7 (282.6–320.8) | 241.9 (227.5–256.2) | 271.3 (259.6–283.1) | |||
CVD (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 326.1 (319.1–333.1) | 0.0016 | 255.9 (251.1–260.7) | 0.0016 | 290.9 (286.8–295.0) | <0.0001 |
yes | 298.6 (283.5–313.6) | 237.8 (227.9–247.7) | 268.3 (259.7–277.0) | |||
Total phytosterols intake from food and enriched margarine (mg/d) | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
20–44 | 344.3 (334.7–353.9) | <0.0001 | 258.9 (252.1–265.7) | <0.0001 | 301.1 (295.4–306.9) | <0.0001 |
45–64 | 326.0 (316.0–336.0) | 264.9 (258.3–271.6) | 295.9 (290.1–301.7) | |||
65+ | 266.6 (252.0–281.2) | 219.6 (210.2–229.0) | 244.8 (236.4–253.1) | |||
Diabetes (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 325.3 (318.4–332.2) | 0.0789 | 255.1 (250.4–259.7) | 0.0941 | 290.1 (286.1–294.2) | 0.0121 |
yes | 306.6 (287.2–326.1) | 242.0 (227.5–256.4) | 273.9 (261.9–285.8) | |||
CVD (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 328.2 (321.1–335.3) | 0.0034 | 257.2 (252.4–262.1) | 0.0016 | 292.7 (288.5–296.9) | <0.0001 |
yes | 302.3 (286.9–317.6) | 238.9 (228.9–248.9) | 270.6 (261.8–279.4) | |||
Beta-sitosterol (mg/d) | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
20–44 | 209.7 (204.0–215.5) | <0.0001 | 160.9 (156.8–165.0) | <0.0001 | 185.0 (181.5–188.5) | <0.0001 |
45–64 | 200.1 (194.1–206.2) | 165.9 (161.9–170.0) | 183.3 (179.8–186.8) | |||
65+ | 164.5 (155.7–173.3) | 137.0 (131.3–142.6) | 151.6 (146.6–156.6) | |||
Diabetes (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 199.3 (195.2–203.4) | 0.0468 | 159.1 (156.3–161.9) | 0.0840 | 179.2 (176.7–181.6) | 0.0065 |
yes | 186.6 (175.0–198.3) | 150.9 (142.2–159.7) | 168.5 (161.3–175.7) | |||
CVD (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 200.7 (196.4–205.0) | 0.0062 | 160.4 (157.5–163.3) | 0.0016 | 180.5 (178.0–183.1) | <0.0001 |
yes | 186.1 (176.9–195.3) | 149.4 (143.3–155.4) | 167.7 (162.4–173.0) | |||
Campesterol | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
20–44 | 75.6 (72.8–78.4) | <0.0001 | 52.6 (50.7–54.5) | <0.0001 | 63.9 (62.3–65.6) | <0.0001 |
45–64 | 68.4 (65.5–71.4) | 52.9 (51.0–54.7) | 60.8 (59.1–62.5) | |||
65+ | 55.3 (51.0–59.6) | 43.3 (40.7–45.9) | 49.7 (47.4–52.1) | |||
Diabetes (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 69.5 (67.5–71.5) | 0.3479 | 50.9 (49.7–52.2) | 0.6694 | 60.2 (59.1–61.4) | 0.2715 |
yes | 66.6 (60.9–72.3) | 50.0 (46.1–54.0) | 58.2 (54.8–61.6) | |||
CVD (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 70.6 (68.5–72.6) | 0.0044 | 51.9 (50.5–53.2) | 0.0015 | 61.2 (60.0–62.4) | <0.0001 |
yes | 63.2 (58.7–67.7) | 46.9 (44.1–49.6) | 55.1 (52.6–57.5) | |||
Stigmasterol | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
20–44 | 28.0 (27.0–28.9) | <0.0001 | 24.1 (23.4–24.8) | <0.0001 | 26.0 (25.4–26.6) | <0.0001 |
45–64 | 27.0 (26.0–28.0) | 24.5 (23.8–25.2) | 25.8 (25.2–26.3) | |||
65+ | 21.2 (19.8–22.7) | 19.0 (18.0–20.0) | 20.2 (19.4–21.0) | |||
Diabetes (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 26.8 (26.2–27.5) | 0.0007 | 23.4 (22.9–23.9) | 0.1717 | 25.1 (24.7–25.5) | 0.0004 |
yes | 23.3 (21.4–25.2) | 22.3 (20.8–23.8) | 22.8 (21.6–24.0) | |||
CVD (mg/d) | ||||||
no | 26.9 (26.2–27.6) | 0.0017 | 23.6 (23.1–24.1) | 0.0023 | 25.2 (24.8–25.7) | <0.0001 |
yes | 24.2 (22.6–25.7) | 21.7 (20.7–22.8) | 23.0 (22.1–23.9) |
Men | Women | Total | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 2554 | N = 3136 | N = 5690 | |||||||
Tercile 1 | Tercile 2 | Tercile 3 | Tercile 1 | Tercile 2 | Tercile 3 | Tercile 1 | Tercile 2 | Tercile 3 | |
n = 851 | n = 851 | n = 852 | n = 1045 | n = 1045 | n = 1046 | n=1896 | n=1897 | n=1897 | |
Total phytosterol intake from food (mg/d) | |||||||||
Mean ± SD | 173.8 ± 43.9 | 292.3 ± 32.8 | 496.0 ± 146.9 | 140.6 ± 33.6 | 233.1 ± 26.1 | 382.7 ± 111.4 | 152.8 ± 38.1 | 257.2 ± 29.9 | 438.8 ± 135.7 |
Me (IQR) | 183.2 (142.0–210.0) | 291.6 (265.1–319.6) | 455.9 (398.7–547.1) | 146.4 (119.2–167.7) | 230.6 (210.0–254.4) | 349.9 (308.1–418.5) | 158.0 (127.0–185.0) | 255.9 (229.8–283.4) | 399.8 (348.0–487.9) |
Range | 0.23–234.7 | 234.7–353.6 | 354.0–1774.0 | 27.2–190.2 | 190.3–281.7 | 281.8–1632.7 | 0.23–207.8 | 207.8–310.6 | 310.7–1774.0 |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) * | 174.8 (168.7–180.9) | 292.5 (286.5–298.6) | 494.8 (488.7–500.9) | 140.9 (136.7–145.1) | 233.1 (228.9–237.2) | 382.5 (378.3–386.6) | 156.6 (152.8–160.4) | 258.4 (254.6–262.1) | 436.4 (432.7–440.2) |
Total phytosterol intake from food and enriched margarine (mg/d) | |||||||||
Mean ± SD | 174.2 ± 44.0 | 294.0 ± 33.3 | 501.1 ± 150.9 | 141.0 ± 33.9 | 234.2 ± 26.2 | 385.1 ± 112.1 | 153.2 ± 38.3 | 258.4 ± 30.1 | 442.6 ± 138.4 |
Me (IQR) | 183.9 (142.5–210.4) | 294.0 (266.7–321.0) | 459.1 (403.8–550.6) | 146.9 (119.2–168.4) | 232.2 (211.3–255.5) | 352.0 (309.6–422.5) | 158.9 (127.1–185.4) | 257.2 (230.9–284.6) | 404.5 (350.3–491.1) |
Range | 0.23–235.2 | 235.3–356.2 | 356.4–1774.0 | 27.2–191.2 | 191.2–283.1 | 283.1–1632.7 | 0.23–208.6 | 208.8–312.1 | 312.1–1774.0 |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) * | 175.2 (168.9–181.4) | 294.3 (288.0–300.5) | 500.0 (493.7–506.3) | 141.2 (137.0–145.4) | 234.2 (230.0–238.4) | 384.9 (380.7–389.1) | 157.0 (153.1–160.8) | 259.6 (255.8–263.4) | 440.2 (436.4–444.1) |
B-sitosterol (mg/d) | |||||||||
Mean ±SD | 107.3 ± 27.9 | 181.1 ± 20.3 | 305.2 ± 88.1 | 87.6 ± 22.0 | 147.0 ± 16.3 | 239.7 ± 62.7 | 95.0 ± 24.6 | 160.9 ± 18.3 | 272.0 ± 79.3 |
Me (IQR) | 112.4 (87.1–131.2) | 180.8 (163.9–197.8) | 279.6 (246.9–332.9) | 90.5 (72.8–105.9) | 146.2 (133.0–161.4) | 222.0 (196.1–264.3) | 98.35 (77.4–115.8) | 160.8 (144.4–176.6) | 248.2 (218.1–301.3) |
Range | 0.20–146.0 | 146.0–219.3 | 219.3- 1028.7 | 14.8–120.0 | 120.0–175.9 | 176.0–679.6 | 0.20–130.7 | 130.8–194.6 | 194.7–1028.7 |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) * | 107.8 (104.1–111.4) | 181.2 (177.5–184.8) | 304.6 (300.9–308.3) | 87.8 (85.4–90.2) | 146.9 (144.5–149.3) | 239.6 (237.2–242.0) | 97.2 (95.0–99.4) | 161.5 (159.3–163.7) | 270.8 (268.6–273.0) |
Campesterol (mg/d) | |||||||||
Mean ±SD | 30.2 ± 8.6 | 57.2 ± 8.5 | 120.0 ± 49.3 | 23.0 ± 6.0 | 41.7 ± 6.1 | 87.8 ± 32.3 | 25.5 ± 7.1 | 48.2 ± 7.8 | 103.4 ± 42.8 |
Me (IQR) | 31.4 (23.9–37.2) | 56.7 (49.7–64.1) | 106.6 (86.4–137.8) | 23.7 (18.7–27.8) | 40.9 (36.4–46.4) | 78.1 (64.9–100.8) | 26.1 (20.6–31.5) | 47.4 (41.4–54.4) | 90.7 (74.4–118.5) |
Range | 0.02–43.5 | 43.5–73.8 | 73.9–585.8 | 3.2- 32.2 | 32.2–54.2 | 54.3–342.3 | 0.02–36.3 | 36.3–63.5 | 63.5–585.8 |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) * | 30.6 (28.6–32.6) | 57.2 (55.2–59.1) | 119.7 (117.7–121.6) | 23.0 (21.8–24.2) | 41.7 (40.6–42.9) | 87.7 (86.6–88.9) | 26.7 (25.5–27.9) | 48.5 (47.3–49.6) | 102.9 (101.7–104.0) |
Stigmasterol (mg/d) | |||||||||
Mean ±SD | 11.9 ± 3.9 | 23.6 ± 3.2 | 43.6 ± 15.3 | 11.2 ± 3.5 | 21.2 ± 2.7 | 37.3 ± 11.6 | 11.5 ± 3.7 | 22.2 ± 2.9 | 40.2 ± 13.6 |
Me (IQR) | 12.2 (9.1–15.1) | 23.5 (20.7–26.4) | 39.1 (32.9–48.1) | 11.7 (8.7–14.2) | 21.1 (18.8–23.6) | 33.9 (29.2–41.8) | 11.8 (8.9–14.5) | 22.1 (19.6–24.7) | 36.1 (30.9–44.9) |
Range | 0.003–18.3 | 18.3–29.2 | 29.3–131.7 | 0.9–16.4 | 16.4–26.0 | 26.1–132.3 | 0.003–17.2 | 17.2–27.3 | 27.4–132.3 |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) * | 12.0 (11.4–12.6) | 23.6 (23.0–24.2) | 43.5 (42.8–44.1) | 11.3 (10.8–11.7) | 21.1 (20.7–21.6) | 37.3 (36.8–37.7) | 11.6 (11.3–12.0) | 22.3 (21.9–22.6) | 40.1 (39.8–40.5) |
Men | Women | Total | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 2554 | N = 3136 | N = 5960 | |||||||
1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | 1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | 1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | |
n = 851 | n = 852 | n = 1045 | n = 1046 | n = 1896 | n = 1897 | ||||
Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | ||||
Phytosterols | |||||||||
Total plant sterols (mg/d) | 174.8 (168.7–180.9) | 494.8 (488.7–500.9) | <0.0001 | 140.9 (136.7–145.1) | 382.5 (378.3–386.6) | <0.0001 | 156.6 (152.8–160.4) | 436.4 (432.7–440.2) | <0.0001 |
Total plant sterols/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 111.6 (108.8–114.4) | 171.8 (169.1–174.6) | <0.0001 | 124.1 (121.2–127.1) | 189.7 (186.7–192.6) | <0.0001 | 117.9 (115.9–120.0) | 180.9 (178.8–183.0) | <0.0001 |
B-sitosterol (mg/d) | 108.4 (104.6–112.1) | 303.9 (300.1–307.7) | <0.0001 | 88.6 (86.1–91.1) | 238.5 (236.1–241.0) | <0.0001 | 97.6 (95.3–99.9) | 269.7 (267.4–271.9) | <0.0001 |
B-sitosterol/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 69.2 (67.5–71.0) | 105.7 (103.9–107.4) | <0.0001 | 78.1 (76.2–79.9) | 118.2 (116.4–120.1) | <0.0001 | 72.8 (71.4–74.1) | 111.8 (110.5–113.1) | <0.0001 |
Campesterol (mg/d) | 32.6 (30.4–34.8) | 115.5 (113.3–117.7) | <0.0001 | 24.5 (23.1–25.8) | 84.2 (82.8–85.5) | <0.0001 | 28.2 (26.9–29.5) | 98.9 (97.6–100.1) | <0.0001 |
Campesterol/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 20.7 (19.8–21.6) | 40.1 (39.2–41.0) | <0.0001 | 21.4 (20.6–22.3) | 42.1 (41.2–42.9) | <0.0001 | 20.5 (19.9–21.1) | 41.0 (40.3–41.6) | <0.0001 |
Stigmasterol (mg/d) | 16.2 (15.3–17.1) | 37.6 (36.7–38.5) | <0.0001 | 14.9 (14.2–15.5) | 31.4 (30.8–32.1) | <0.0001 | 15.6 (15.1–16.2) | 34.4 (33.9–35.0) | <0.0001 |
Stigmasterol/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 10.7 (10.3–11.2) | 13.2 (12.7–13.7) | <0.0001 | 13.5 (13.0–14.1) | 15.6 (15.1–16.1) | <0.0001 | 12.2 (11.9–12.6) | 14.4 (14.0–14.7) | <0.0001 |
Phytosterols from enriched margarine (mg/d) | 1.03 (0.00–2.52) | 3.81 (2.32–5.30) | 0.0278 | 0.66 (0.02–1.31) | 2.05 (1.41–2.70) | 0.0083 | 0.80 (0.03–1.57) | 2.93 (2.17–3.69) | 0.0004 |
Phytosterols from enriched margarine/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 0.69 (0.03–1.35) | 1.42 (0.76–2.09) | 0.2832 | 0.59 (0.20–0.99) | 1.09 (0.70–1.49) | 0.1861 | 0.57 (0.19–0.95) | 1.25 (0.88–1.62) | 0.0330 |
Polyphenols and antioxidants | |||||||||
Polyphenols (mg/d) | 1464 (1410–1518) | 2705 (2651–2759) | <0.0001 | 1427 (1383–1472) | 2494 (2450–2538) | <0.0001 | 1443 (1408–1478) | 2594 (2559–2629) | <0.0001 |
Polyphenols/1000 kcal (mg/d) | 945 (916–973) | 945 (916–973) | 0.9999 | 1260 (1224–1296) | 1227 (1191–1263) | 0.4125 | 1112 (1088–1136) | 1086 (1062–1110) | 0.2963 |
Antioxidants (mmol/d) | 8.71 (8.25–9.18) | 16.20 (15.74–16.67) | <0.0001 | 8.84 (8.43–9.25) | 15.36 (14.95–15.77) | <0.0001 | 8.79 (8.48–9.11) | 15.78 (15.47–16.09) | <0.0001 |
Antioxidants/1000 kcal (mmol/d) | 5.70 (5.47–5.93) | 5.71 (5.48–5.94) | 0.9979 | 7.87 (7.57–8.17) | 7.60 (7.29–7.90) | 0.4324 | 6.86 (6.66–7.07) | 6.66 (6.46–6.86) | 0.3449 |
Dietary fiber | |||||||||
Dietary fiber (g/d) | 14.9 (14.4–15.4) | 27.5 (27.0–28.0) | <0.0001 | 12.4 (12.0–12.8) | 22.5 (22.1–22.9) | <0.0001 | 13.5 (13.2–13.9) | 24.9 (24.6–25.2) | <0.0001 |
Dietary fiber/1000 kcal (g/d) | 9.4 (9.1–9.6) | 9.6 (9.4–9.8) | 0.3899 | 10.7 (10.4–11.0) | 11.1 (10.8–11.4) | 0.1432 | 10.0 (9.9–10.2) | 10.3 (10.1–10.5) | 0.1132 |
Diet quality | |||||||||
HDI score (points) | 2.67 (2.59–2.75) | 3.83 (3.75–3.92) | <0.0001 | 2.76 (2.69–2.83) | 3.85 (3.78–3.91) | <0.0001 | 2.70 (2.65–2.76) | 3.83 (3.77–3.88) | <0.0001 |
Men | Women | Total | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 2554 | n = 3136 | n = 5960 | |||||||
1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | 1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | 1st Tercile | 3rd Tercile | p | |
n = 851 | n = 852 | n = 1045 | n = 1046 | n = 1896 | n = 1897 | ||||
Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | Mean (95% CI) | ||||
Atherogenic food | |||||||||
Butter (g/d) | 13.1 (11.7–14.5) | 16.9 (15.5–18.3) | 0.0007 | 10.3 (9.4–11.2) | 12.7 (11.8–13.6) | 0.0005 | 11.8 (11.0–12.6) | 14.9 (14.1–15.7) | <0.0001 |
Butter/1000 kcal (g/d) | 7.8 (7.3–8.4) | 5.3 (4.8–5.8) | <0.0001 | 8.2 (7.7–8.7) | 5.8 (5.3–6.4) | <0.0001 | 8.1 (7.7–8.5) | 5.6 (5.2–6.0) | <0.0001 |
Red meat and cold cuts (g/d) | 108.3 (97.8–118.9) | 214.2 (203.7–224.8) | <0.0001 | 53.6 (48.2–58.9) | 101.9 (96.5–107.3) | <0.0001 | 84.1 (78.3–89.8) | 156.4 (150.7–162.0) | <0.0001 |
Red meat and cold cuts/1000 kcal (g/d) | 61.4(57.4–65.3) | 69.7(65.8–73.6) | 0.0102 | 41.0 (38.0–44.1) | 48.1 (45.1–51.2) | 0.0034 | 51.7 (49.2–54.2) | 58.7 (56.3–61.2) | 0.0003 |
Animal fats (g/d) | 23.2 (21.2–25.3) | 28.2 (26.1–30.2) | 0.0024 | 18.6 (17.3–19.8) | 20.4 (19.1–21.6) | 0.1120 | 21.1 (19.9–22.2) | 24.5 (23.4–25.7) | 0.0001 |
Animal fats/1000 kcal (g/d) | 13.4 (12.7–14.1) | 8.7 (8.0–9.4) | <0.0001 | 14.4 (13.8–15.1) | 9.1 (8.5–9.8) | <0.0001 | 14.0 (13.6–14.5) | 9.0 (8.5–9.5) | <0.0001 |
Antiatherogenic food | |||||||||
Oils (g/d) | 2.8 (1.8–3.9) | 25.3 (24.3–26.4) | <0.0001 | 1.9 (1.2–2.6) | 19.4 (18.8–20.1) | <0.0001 | 2.2 (1.5–2.8) | 22.0 (21.4–22.6) | <0.0001 |
Oils/1000 kcal (g/d) | 1.9 (1.5–2.4) | 8.9 (8.5–9.3) | <0.0001 | 1.6 (1.3–2.0) | 10.0 (9.6–10.4) | <0.0001 | 1.5 (1.2–1.8) | 9.3 (9.0–9.6) | <0.0001 |
Soft margarine (g/d) | 6.9 (5.8–8.1) | 18.3 (17.1–19.4) | <0.0001 | 4.7 (4.1–5.4) | 9.8 (9.1–10.4) | <0.0001 | 6.0 (5.4–6.7) | 13.9 (13.3–14.6) | <0.0001 |
Soft margarine/1000 kcal (g/d) | 4.5 (4.0–5.0) | 6.4 (5.9–6.9) | <0.0001 | 4.4 (4.0–4.8) | 4.8 (4.4–5.2) | 0.3933 | 4.5 (4.2–4.8) | 5.6 (5.3–5.9) | <0.0001 |
Vegetable fats (g/d) | 9.7 (8.3–11.2) | 43.7 (42.3–45.1) | <0.0001 | 6.6 (5.8–7.5) | 29.3 (28.4–30.1) | <0.0001 | 8.2 (7.3–9.0) | 36.0 (35.2–36.8) | <0.0001 |
Vegetable fats/1000 kcal (g/d) | 6.4 (5.8–7.0) | 15.3 (14.7–15.9) | <0.0001 | 6.0 (5.5–6.6) | 14.8 (14.3–15.3) | <0.0001 | 6.0 (5.6–6.4) | 15.0 (14.6–15.4) | <0.0001 |
Fish (g/d) | 11.7(7.1–16.3) | 37.3(32.7–41.9) | <0.0001 | 7.6 (4.4–10.7) | 25.7 (22.5–28.9) | <0.0001 | 8.8 (6.0–11.6) | 31.3 (28.6–34.0) | <0.0001 |
Fish/1000 kcal (g/d) | 7.5 (5.5–9.5) | 13.3 (11.3–15.4) | 0.0002 | 6.5 (4.5–8.4) | 13.2 (11.2–15.2) | <0.0001 | 6.4 (4.9–7.8) | 13.4 (11.9–14.8) | <0.0001 |
Wholemeal bread (g/d) | 22.0 (17.6–26.5) | 34.0 (29.5–38.5) | 0.0007 | 18.5 (15.5–21.6) | 32.4 (29.4–35.5) | <0.0001 | 19.2 (16.5–21.8) | 32.6 (29.9–35.2) | <0.0001 |
Wholemeal bread/1000 kcal (g/d) | 14.3 (12.1–16.4) | 13.1 (10.9–15.2) | 0.7170 | 17.8 (15.8–19.9) | 16.5 (14.5–18.6) | 0.6651 | 15.7 (14.2–17.2) | 14.6 (13.1–16.1) | 0.5920 |
Vegetables (g/d) | 195 (183–208) | 316 (304–328) | <0.0001 | 168 (159–178) | 287 (277–296) | <0.0001 | 181 (173–188) | 301 (293–309) | <0.0001 |
Vegetables/1000 kcal (g/d) | 131 (124–138) | 113 (106–120) | 0.0013 | 153 (145–160) | 146 (139–154) | 0.4727 | 142 (137–147) | 129 (124–135) | 0.0024 |
Fruit (g/d) | 119 (103–135) | 268 (253–284) | <0.0001 | 134 (120–147) | 303 (290–317) | <0.0001 | 123 (112–133) | 282 (272–292) | <0.0001 |
Fruit/1000 kcal (g/d) | 77 (69–84) | 95 (87–102) | 0.0018 | 119 (111–128) | 149 (141–158) | <0.0001 | 98 (92–104) | 121 (115–126) | <0.0001 |
Legume (g/d) | 0.73(0.00–1.88) | 7.73 (6.58–8.88) | <0.0001 | 0.77 (0.00–1.58) | 5.64 (4.83–6.46) | <0.0001 | 0.85 (0.16–1.55) | 6.74 (6.05–7.43) | <0.0001 |
Legume/1000 kcal (g/d) | 0.53 (0.00–1.07) | 3.00 (2.46–3.54) | <0.0001 | 0.79 (0.23–1.35) | 3.07 (2.51–3.64) | <0.0001 | 0.69 (0.28–1.09) | 3.07 (2.68–3.47) | <0.0001 |
Nuts (g/d) | 0.60 (0.00–1.34) | 2.92 (2.18–3.67) | <0.0001 | 0.21 (0.00–0.92) | 2.91 (2.20–3.62) | <0.0001 | 0.21 (0.00–0.74) | 3.10 (2.58–3.62) | <0.0001 |
Nuts/1000 kcal (g/d) | 0.35 (0.04–0.65) | 1.05 (0.74–1.36) | 0.0045 | 0.14 (0.00–0.49) | 1.34 (0.99–1.69) | <0.0001 | 0.14 (0.00–0.38) | 1.29 (1.06–1.53) | <0.0001 |
Seeds (g/d) | 0.11 (0.00–0.63) | 1.34 (0.82–1.86) | 0.0033 | 0.12 (0.00–0.40) | 1.13 (0.85–1.40) | <0.0001 | 0.11 (0.00–0.39) | 1.20 (0.92–1.48) | <0.0001 |
Seeds/1000 kcal (g/d) | 0.10 (0.00–0.32) | 0.51 (0.29–0.73) | 0.0285 | 0.11 (0.00–0.27) | 0.57 (0.41–0.74) | 0.0003 | 0.10 (0.00–0.24) | 0.54 (0.40–0.67) | <0.0001 |
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Witkowska, A.M.; Waśkiewicz, A.; Zujko, M.E.; Cicha-Mikołajczyk, A.; Mirończuk-Chodakowska, I.; Drygas, W. Dietary Plant Sterols and Phytosterol-Enriched Margarines and Their Relationship with Cardiovascular Disease among Polish Men and Women: The WOBASZ II Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2665. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14132665
Witkowska AM, Waśkiewicz A, Zujko ME, Cicha-Mikołajczyk A, Mirończuk-Chodakowska I, Drygas W. Dietary Plant Sterols and Phytosterol-Enriched Margarines and Their Relationship with Cardiovascular Disease among Polish Men and Women: The WOBASZ II Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients. 2022; 14(13):2665. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14132665
Chicago/Turabian StyleWitkowska, Anna Maria, Anna Waśkiewicz, Małgorzata Elżbieta Zujko, Alicja Cicha-Mikołajczyk, Iwona Mirończuk-Chodakowska, and Wojciech Drygas. 2022. "Dietary Plant Sterols and Phytosterol-Enriched Margarines and Their Relationship with Cardiovascular Disease among Polish Men and Women: The WOBASZ II Cross-Sectional Study" Nutrients 14, no. 13: 2665. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14132665
APA StyleWitkowska, A. M., Waśkiewicz, A., Zujko, M. E., Cicha-Mikołajczyk, A., Mirończuk-Chodakowska, I., & Drygas, W. (2022). Dietary Plant Sterols and Phytosterol-Enriched Margarines and Their Relationship with Cardiovascular Disease among Polish Men and Women: The WOBASZ II Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 14(13), 2665. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14132665