Cross-Sectional Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Depressive Symptoms in Young and Middle-Aged Japanese Women: Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey Design and Analytic Sample
2.2. Assessment of Depressive Symptoms
2.3. Assessment of Intakes of Starch and Sugars
2.4. Assessment of Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Intakes of Starch and Sugars and Their Sources
3.2. Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Selected Characteristics
3.3. Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Depressive Symptoms
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Young Women | Middle-Aged Women | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starch | Total Sugars | Free Sugars | Sucrose | Lactose | Glucose | Total Fructose | Starch | Total Sugars | Free Sugars | Sucrose | Lactose | Glucose | Total Fructose | |
Intakes (g/day) 2 | ||||||||||||||
Mean | 149.8 | 65.2 | 45.0 | 36.5 | 6.9 | 9.9 | 27.6 | 151.6 | 64.6 | 40.6 | 38.4 | 7.2 | 8.8 | 27.0 |
Standard deviation | 38.5 | 25.4 | 23.4 | 13.8 | 5.7 | 7.1 | 12.4 | 39.1 | 21.5 | 17.9 | 13.6 | 5.5 | 4.8 | 10.1 |
Contribution (%) | ||||||||||||||
Rice and grains | 62.9 | 0.8 | 0 | 0.3 | 0 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 60.2 | 0.7 | 0 | 0.2 | 0 | 4.1 | 0.2 |
Bread | 9.3 | 2.3 | 0 | <0.1 | 1.9 | 3.6 | 1.9 | 10.4 | 2.4 | 0 | <0.1 | 2.1 | 4.2 | 2.0 |
Noodle | 9.8 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 9.9 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 |
Other grain products | 3.1 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 2.8 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.5 |
Potatoes | 2.9 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 3.1 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.9 | 0.5 |
Sugar and confectioneries | 10.3 | 49.1 | 67.4 | 71.3 | 0 | 11.7 | 18.4 | 11.8 | 48.8 | 73.2 | 70.5 | 0 | 10.3 | 23.6 |
Pulses and nuts | 0.3 | 3.1 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 0 | 6.4 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 4.2 | 0 | 7.4 | 3.3 |
Vegetables 3 | 0.4 | 7.1 | 0.3 | 2.0 | 0 | 21.0 | 8.1 | 0.5 | 8.3 | 0.4 | 2.3 | 0 | 26.5 | 9.6 |
Fruits | 0.3 | 7.6 | 0.3 | 6.4 | 0 | 11.7 | 9.8 | 0.4 | 10.2 | 0.2 | 8.9 | 0 | 16.1 | 13.0 |
Fish and shellfish | 0.2 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.95 | 0.2 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 0 | 0.8 | 1.53 |
Meats | <0.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.7 | 0.1 |
Eggs | 0 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.5 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.4 | 0 |
Dairy products | <0.1 | 9.2 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 47.8 | 0.7 | 2.7 | <0.1 | 10.5 | 4.1 | 3.7 | 59.0 | 0.7 | 2.6 |
Fat and oil | <0.1 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.64 | <0.1 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.51 |
Tea and coffee | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 45.9 | 0 | 33.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 35.7 | 0 | 29.5 |
Sugar-sweetened beverages 4 | <0.1 | 10.7 | 14.2 | 6.0 | 4.2 | 21.3 | 12.0 | <0.1 | 6.7 | 9.6 | 4.5 | 3.0 | 12.5 | 7.6 |
Fruit and vegetable juice | 0.1 | 4.8 | 6.3 | 1.9 | 0 | 8.7 | 6.6 | <0.1 | 2.6 | 3.6 | 0.9 | 0 | 5.3 | 3.6 |
Alcoholic beverages | 0 | <0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | <0.1 | <0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.6 | 0.1 |
Seasonings | <0.1 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 0 | 5.8 | 1.5 | <0.1 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0 | 7.3 | 1.5 |
Starch | Total Sugars | Free Sugars | Sucrose | Lactose | Glucose | Total Fructose | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starch | --- | −0.55 | −0.45 | −0.51 | −0.31 | −0.31 | −0.49 |
Total sugars | −0.42 | --- | 0.93 | 0.82 | 0.31 | 0.78 | 0.97 |
Free sugars | −0.34 | 0.87 | --- | 0.78 | 0.09 | 0.79 | 0.94 |
Sucrose | −0.37 | 0.86 | 0.84 | --- | 0.16 | 0.36 | 0.79 |
Lactose | −0.27 | 0.39 | 0.11 | 0.17 | --- | −0.02 | 0.08 |
Glucose | −0.24 | 0.70 | 0.61 | 0.35 | 0.03 | --- | 0.83 |
Total fructose | −0.25 | 0.70 | 0.59 | 0.35 | 0.14 | 0.94 | --- |
Starch 3 | Total Sugars 3 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 792) | Q3 (n = 793) | Q5 (n = 792) | p4 | Q1 (n = 792) | Q3 (n = 793) | Q5 (n = 792) | p4 | |||||||
BMI (kg/m2), mean ± SD | 20.6 | 2.6 | 20.9 | 2.9 | 21.0 | 3.0 | 0.007 | 21.2 | 3.2 | 20.9 | 2.6 | 20.5 | 2.7 | <0.001 |
Currently smoking, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 3 | (0.4) | 0 | (0.0) | 2 | (0.3) | - | 2 | (0.3) | 1 | (0.1) | 3 | (0.4) | - |
Alcohol drinking, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 68 | (8.6) | 44 | (5.6) | 43 | (5.4) | <0.001 | 46 | (5.8) | 46 | (5.8) | 62 | (7.8) | 0.06 |
Medication use, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 105 | (13.3) | 86 | (10.8) | 73 | (9.2) | 0.003 | 84 | (10.6) | 72 | (9.1) | 108 | (13.6) | 0.003 |
Living alone, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 111 | (14.0) | 193 | (24.3) | 244 | (30.8) | <0.001 | 121 | (21.6) | 208 | (26.2) | 166 | (21.0) | 0.26 |
Self-reported level of stress, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Very low | 32 | (4.0) | 24 | (3.0) | 15 | (1.9) | 0.01 | 17 | (2.2) | 18 | (2.3) | 39 | (4.9) | <0.001 |
Low | 204 | (25.8) | 174 | (21.9) | 198 | (25.0) | 189 | (23.9) | 188 | (23.7) | 225 | (28.4) | ||
Normal | 456 | (57.6) | 481 | (60.7) | 471 | (59.5) | 480 | (60.6) | 463 | (58.4) | 437 | (55.2) | ||
High | 62 | (7.8) | 81 | (10.2) | 62 | (7.8) | 70 | (8.8) | 80 | (10.1) | 68 | (8.6) | ||
Very high | 38 | (4.8) | 33 | (4.2) | 46 | (5.8) | 36 | (4.6) | 44 | (5.6) | 23 | (2.9) | ||
Dietary reporting status, n (%) 5 | ||||||||||||||
Under-reporting | 126 | (15.9) | 140 | (17.7) | 147 | (18.6) | <0.001 | 50 | (6.3) | 205 | (25.9) | 145 | (18.3) | <0.001 |
Plausible reporting | 553 | (69.8) | 632 | (79.7) | 571 | (72.1) | 636 | (80.3) | 568 | (71.6) | 558 | (70.5) | ||
Over-reporting | 113 | (14.3) | 21 | (2.7) | 74 | (9.3) | 106 | (13.4) | 20 | (2.5) | 89 | (11.2) | ||
Physical activity (total metabolic equivalents; h/d), mean ± SD | 38.7 | 6.1 | 37.6 | 5.3 | 37.6 | 5.5 | <0.001 | 37.7 | 5.3 | 37.4 | 5.5 | 38.5 | 6.0 | <0.001 |
Energy intake (kcal/d), mean ± SD | 1938 | 761 | 1654 | 425 | 1795 | 632 | <0.001 | 2010 | 609 | 1567 | 418 | 1852 | 737 | <0.001 |
Diet quality score, mean ± SD 3,6 | 39.5 | 8.2 | 41.3 | 7.8 | 41.8 | 7.3 | <0.001 | 41.9 | 6.6 | 41.0 | 8.1 | 40.0 | 8.3 | <0.001 |
Starch 2 | Total Sugars 2 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 765) | Q3 (n = 766) | Q5 (n = 765) | p3 | Q1 (n = 765) | Q3 (n = 766) | Q5 (n = 765) | p3 | |||||||
Age (years), mean ± SD | 47.5 | 4.1 | 47.6 | 4.2 | 48.1 | 4.1 | 0.002 | 47.1 | 3.9 | 48.1 | 3.9 | 48.2 | 4.2 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2), mean ± SD | 22.0 | 3.0 | 21.9 | 3.1 | 22.3 | 3.3 | 0.04 | 22.3 | 3.3 | 22.1 | 3.1 | 21.9 | 3.1 | 0.10 |
Currently smoking, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 94 | (12.3) | 61 | (8.0) | 43 | (5.6) | <0.001 | 76 | (9.9) | 49 | (6.4) | 57 | (7.5) | 0.06 |
Alcohol drinking, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 473 | (61.8) | 371 | (48.4) | 276 | (36.1) | <0.001 | 477 | (62.4) | 363 | (47.4) | 310 | (40.5) | <0.001 |
Medication use, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 225 | (29.4) | 181 | (23.6) | 168 | (22.0) | 0.002 | 172 | (22.5) | 208 | (27.2) | 248 | (32.4) | <0.001 |
Marital status, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Married | 686 | (89.7) | 708 | (92.4) | 688 | (89.9) | 0.62 | 705 | (92.2) | 711 | (92.8) | 688 | (89.9) | 0.07 |
Education, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
≤12 years | 373 | (48.8) | 353 | (46.1) | 407 | (53.2) | 0.23 | 404 | (52.8) | 343 | (44.8) | 369 | (48.2) | 0.02 |
13 to 14 years | 281 | (36.7) | 300 | (39.2) | 260 | (34.0) | 275 | (36.0) | 304 | (39.7) | 277 | (36.2) | ||
≥15 years | 111 | (14.5) | 113 | (14.8) | 98 | (12.8) | 86 | (11.2) | 119 | (15.5) | 119 | (15.6) | ||
Occupation, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Housewife | 145 | (19.0) | 138 | (18.0) | 153 | (20.0) | 0.53 | 122 | (16.0) | 165 | (21.5) | 145 | (19.0) | 0.27 |
Part-time job | 350 | (45.8) | 339 | (44.3) | 335 | (43.8) | 368 | (48.1) | 323 | (42.2) | 347 | (45.4) | ||
Full-time job | 270 | (35.3) | 289 | (37.7) | 277 | (36.2) | 275 | (36.0) | 278 | (36.3) | 273 | (35.7) | ||
Self-reported level of stress, n (%) | ||||||||||||||
Very low | 48 | (6.3) | 45 | (5.9) | 56 | (7.3) | 0.13 | 52 | (6.8) | 42 | (5.5) | 62 | (8.1) | 0.046 |
Low | 227 | (29.7) | 225 | (29.4) | 212 | (27.7) | 199 | (26.0) | 238 | (31.1) | 233 | (30.5) | ||
Normal | 404 | (52.8) | 436 | (56.9) | 434 | (56.7) | 439 | (57.4) | 417 | (54.4) | 407 | (53.2) | ||
High | 55 | (7.2) | 37 | (4.8) | 40 | (5.2) | 52 | (6.8) | 41 | (5.4) | 39 | (5.1) | ||
Very high | 31 | (4.1) | 23 | (3.0) | 23 | (3.0) | 23 | (3.0) | 28 | (3.7) | 24 | (3.1) | ||
Dietary reporting status, n (%) 4 | ||||||||||||||
Under-reporting | 45 | (5.9) | 51 | (6.7) | 77 | (10.1) | <0.001 | 33 | (4.3) | 75 | (9.8) | 37 | (4.8) | 0.33 |
Plausible reporting | 531 | (69.4) | 672 | (87.7) | 585 | (76.5) | 607 | (79.4) | 648 | (84.6) | 593 | (77.5) | ||
Over-reporting | 189 | (24.7) | 43 | (5.6) | 103 | (13.5) | 125 | (16.3) | 43 | (5.6) | 135 | (17.7) | ||
Physical activity (total metabolic equivalents; h/day), mean ± SD | 41.1 | 5.6 | 40.6 | 5.5 | 40.5 | 5.9 | 0.06 | 40.7 | 5.8 | 40.8 | 5.5 | 41.1 | 5.7 | 0.17 |
Energy intake (kcal/d), mean ± SD | 2112 | 587 | 1761 | 379 | 1817 | 708 | <0.001 | 1994 | 654 | 1716 | 428 | 2004 | 552 | 0.02 |
Diet quality score, mean ± SD 2,5 | 40.3 | 8.4 | 43.0 | 8.0 | 44.2 | 7.2 | <0.001 | 40.5 | 7.4 | 43.3 | 8.1 | 43.2 | 8.6 | <0.001 |
Q1 (n = 792) | Q2 (n = 793) | Q3 (n = 793) | Q4 (n = 793) | Q5 (n = 792) | p for Trend 1 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starch (g/day), median 2 | 108.7 | 133.7 | 148.8 | 164.0 | 187.1 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 25.3 | 22.3 | 22.6 | 18.9 | 20.8 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.85 | (0.68, | 1.07) | 0.86 | (0.69, | 1.09) | 0.69 | (0.54, | 0.88) | 0.78 | (0.62, | 0.99) | 0.01 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.83 | (0.63, | 1.07) | 0.98 | (0.75, | 1.27) | 0.72 | (0.55, | 0.94) | 0.80 | (0.62, | 1.05) | 0.06 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.84 | (0.65, | 1.10) | 1.01 | (0.77, | 1.31) | 0.75 | (0.57, | 0.99) | 0.88 | (0.65, | 1.10) | 0.15 |
Total sugars (g/day), median 2 | 41.1 | 54.0 | 63.4 | 72.8 | 90.3 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 19.4 | 20.4 | 19.2 | 22.7 | 28.2 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.06 | (0.83, | 1.36) | 0.98 | (0.77, | 1.26) | 1.22 | (0.96, | 1.55) | 1.62 | (1.29, | 2.05) | <0.001 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.15 | (0.87, | 1.52) | 1.02 | (0.77, | 1.36) | 1.24 | (0.94, | 1.63) | 1.49 | (1.14, | 1.94) | 0.003 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.14 | (0.87, | 1.51) | 1.01 | (0.76, | 1.34) | 1.21 | (0.92, | 1.59) | 1.42 | (1.09, | 1.86) | 0.008 |
Free sugars (g/day), median 2 | 23.8 | 34.9 | 42.7 | 50.9 | 66.5 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 18.9 | 18.3 | 21.2 | 22.8 | 28.7 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.96 | (0.74, | 1.23) | 1.15 | (0.90, | 1.47) | 1.27 | (0.99, | 1.61) | 1.72 | (1.36, | 2.18) | <0.001 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.04 | (0.78, | 1.38) | 1.31 | (0.99, | 1.73) | 1.33 | (1.01, | 1.76) | 1.61 | (1.24, | 2.11) | <0.001 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.00 | (0.75, | 1.33) | 1.23 | (0.93, | 1.63) | 1.20 | (0.90, | 1.60) | 1.42 | (1.07, | 1.88) | 0.006 |
Sucrose (g/day), median 2 | 22.5 | 30.1 | 35.4 | 41.1 | 51.6 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 19.3 | 18.4 | 20.7 | 22.3 | 29.2 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.94 | (0.73, | 1.21) | 1.09 | (0.85, | 1.39) | 1.20 | (0.94, | 1.53) | 1.72 | (1.36, | 2.17) | <0.001 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.05 | (0.79, | 1.39) | 1.27 | (0.96, | 1.68) | 1.23 | (0.93, | 1.63) | 1.65 | (1.27, | 2.14) | <0.001 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.03 | (0.78, | 1.37) | 1.21 | (0.91, | 1.60) | 1.13 | (0.85, | 1.49) | 1.47 | (1.12, | 1.93) | 0.004 |
Lactose (g/day), median 2 | 2.1 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 7.9 | 12.6 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 22.2 | 20.9 | 22.3 | 20.6 | 23.9 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.93 | (0.73, | 1.18) | 1.01 | (0.79, | 1.27) | 0.91 | (0.71, | 1.15) | 1.10 | (0.87, | 1.39) | 0.37 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.96 | (0.73, | 1.26) | 1.07 | (0.81, | 1.41) | 0.97 | (0.74, | 1.27) | 1.06 | (0.81, | 1.38) | 0.65 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.96 | (0.73, | 1.26) | 1.07 | (0.81, | 1.41) | 1.04 | (0.79, | 1.37) | 1.19 | (0.91, | 1.56) | 0.14 |
Glucose (g/day), median 2 | 4.4 | 7.3 | 8.9 | 10.9 | 15.1 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 22.5 | 17.9 | 22.3 | 20.4 | 26.8 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.75 | (0.59, | 0.96) | 0.99 | (0.78, | 1.26) | 0.89 | (0.70, | 1.13) | 1.26 | (1.00, | 1.59) | 0.009 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.76 | (0.58, | 1.01) | 0.94 | (0.72, | 1.24) | 0.90 | (0.68, | 1.19) | 1.25 | (0.96, | 1.63) | 0.02 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.79 | (0.60, | 1.05) | 0.98 | (0.74, | 1.29) | 0.93 | (0.71, | 1.23) | 1.30 | (0.995, | 1.69) | 0.01 |
Total fructose (g/day), median 2 | 16.5 | 22.4 | 26.3 | 30.9 | 39.0 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 19.1 | 20.3 | 19.3 | 24.1 | 27.2 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.08 | (0.84, | 1.39) | 1.02 | (0.79, | 1.30) | 1.35 | (1.06, | 1.71) | 1.58 | (1.25, | 2.00) | <0.001 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.26 | (0.95, | 1.66) | 1.11 | (0.84, | 1.47) | 1.48 | (1.13, | 1.95) | 1.47 | (1.12, | 1.92) | 0.003 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 1.23 | (0.93, | 1.63) | 1.08 | (0.81, | 1.43) | 1.40 | (1.06, | 1.85) | 1.38 | (1.05, | 1.81) | 0.01 |
Q1 (n = 765) | Q2 (n = 765) | Q3 (n = 766) | Q4 (n = 765) | Q5 (n = 765) | p for Trend 1 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starch (g/day), median 2 | 110.6 | 135.8 | 151.2 | 166.2 | 187.3 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 17.4 | 15.6 | 18.0 | 14.9 | 18.2 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.88 | (0.67, | 1.15) | 1.04 | (0.80, | 1.36) | 0.83 | (0.63, | 1.09) | 1.06 | (0.81, | 1.37) | 0.84 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.94 | (0.70, | 1.27) | 1.17 | (0.87, | 1.57) | 0.95 | (0.70, | 1.28) | 1.11 | (0.82, | 1.49) | 0.52 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.98 | (0.73, | 1.33) | 1.24 | (0.92, | 1.67) | 1.03 | (0.76, | 1.40) | 1.20 | (0.89, | 1.62) | 0.23 |
Total sugars (g/day), median 2 | 42.5 | 54.4 | 62.7 | 71.8 | 89.1 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 18.6 | 13.9 | 15.0 | 18.4 | 18.2 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.71 | (0.54, | 0.93) | 0.78 | (0.59, | 1.02) | 0.99 | (0.77, | 1.28) | 0.97 | (0.75, | 1.26) | 0.40 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.71 | (0.53, | 0.96) | 0.76 | (0.57, | 1.03) | 1.00 | (0.75, | 1.33) | 0.87 | (0.65, | 1.16) | 0.98 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.75 | (0.55, | 1.01) | 0.80 | (0.59, | 1.08) | 1.07 | (0.80, | 1.44) | 0.90 | (0.67, | 1.20) | 0.82 |
Free sugars (g/day), median 2 | 23.8 | 32.0 | 38.3 | 45.7 | 59.8 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 15.8 | 14.3 | 16.3 | 16.7 | 20.9 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.88 | (0.67, | 1.17) | 1.04 | (0.79, | 1.36) | 1.07 | (0.82, | 1.40) | 1.41 | (1.09, | 1.83) | 0.002 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.84 | (0.61, | 1.14) | 0.99 | (0.73, | 1.34) | 1.04 | (0.77, | 1.40) | 1.16 | (0.87, | 1.56) | 0.10 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.84 | (0.62, | 1.14) | 0.97 | (0.71, | 1.31) | 0.98 | (0.72, | 1.32) | 1.04 | (0.78, | 1.40) | 0.47 |
Sucrose (g/day), median 2 | 24.4 | 31.6 | 37.0 | 43.3 | 54.6 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 17.4 | 13.3 | 15.3 | 18.2 | 19.9 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.73 | (0.55, | 0.97) | 0.86 | (0.65, | 1.12) | 1.06 | (0.81, | 1.37) | 1.18 | (0.91, | 1.53) | 0.02 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.70 | (0.52, | 0.95) | 0.86 | (0.64, | 1.16) | 1.06 | (0.79, | 1.42) | 1.03 | (0.77, | 1.38) | 0.18 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.73 | (0.53, | 0.99) | 0.87 | (0.64, | 1.17) | 1.04 | (0.77, | 1.39) | 0.96 | (0.72, | 1.29) | 0.50 |
Lactose (g/day), median 2 | 2.1 | 4.2 | 6.0 | 8.8 | 13.3 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 19.6 | 16.6 | 14.2 | 15.8 | 17.8 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.82 | (0.63, | 1.06) | 0.68 | (0.52, | 0.89) | 0.77 | (0.59, | 1.00) | 0.89 | (0.69, | 1.15) | 0.59 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.81 | (0.61, | 1.08) | 0.71 | (0.52, | 0.95) | 0.80 | (0.60, | 1.08) | 0.90 | (0.67, | 1.19) | 0.75 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.83 | (0.62, | 1.11) | 0.77 | (0.57, | 1.05) | 0.96 | (0.71, | 1.31) | 1.13 | (0.83, | 1.53) | 0.17 |
Glucose (g/day), median 2 | 4.9 | 6.7 | 8.0 | 9.7 | 13.3 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 19.2 | 16.9 | 16.5 | 14.9 | 16.6 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.85 | (0.66, | 1.11) | 0.83 | (0.64, | 1.08) | 0.74 | (0.56, | 0.96) | 0.84 | (0.64, | 1.09) | 0.17 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.84 | (0.63, | 1.12) | 0.92 | (0.68, | 1.23) | 0.74 | (0.55, | 0.99) | 0.77 | (0.58, | 1.03) | 0.07 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.87 | (0.65, | 1.16) | 0.98 | (0.73, | 1.32) | 0.81 | (0.60, | 1.09) | 0.86 | (0.64, | 1.15) | 0.30 |
Total fructose (g/day), median 2 | 17.1 | 22.2 | 25.9 | 30.2 | 38.5 | ||||||||||
Depressive symptoms (%) 3 | 17.8 | 15.2 | 15.7 | 18.2 | 17.3 | ||||||||||
Model 1 4 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.83 | (0.63, | 1.08) | 0.86 | (0.66, | 1.12) | 1.03 | (0.79, | 1.33) | 0.96 | (0.74, | 1.26) | 0.68 |
Model 2 5 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.84 | (0.63, | 1.14) | 0.84 | (0.63, | 1.13) | 1.02 | (0.76, | 1.37) | 0.84 | (0.62, | 1.12) | 0.53 |
Model 3 6 | 1.00 | (reference) | 0.86 | (0.64, | 1.17) | 0.86 | (0.63, | 1.15) | 1.04 | (0.78, | 1.40) | 0.84 | (0.63, | 1.13) | 0.54 |
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Fujiwara, A.; Murakami, K.; Suga, H.; Sasaki, S.; Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health Study Group. Cross-Sectional Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Depressive Symptoms in Young and Middle-Aged Japanese Women: Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2400. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14122400
Fujiwara A, Murakami K, Suga H, Sasaki S, Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health Study Group. Cross-Sectional Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Depressive Symptoms in Young and Middle-Aged Japanese Women: Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health. Nutrients. 2022; 14(12):2400. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14122400
Chicago/Turabian StyleFujiwara, Aya, Kentaro Murakami, Hitomi Suga, Satoshi Sasaki, and Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health Study Group. 2022. "Cross-Sectional Associations of Intakes of Starch and Sugars with Depressive Symptoms in Young and Middle-Aged Japanese Women: Three-Generation Study of Women on Diets and Health" Nutrients 14, no. 12: 2400. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14122400