Muscle-Related Effect of Whey Protein and Vitamin D3 Supplementation Provided before or after Bedtime in Males Undergoing Resistance Training
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Study Design and Randomization Procedures
2.3. Supplement Intervention
2.4. Dietary Assessment and Control
2.5. RT Program
2.6. Self-Reported Dietary and Lifestyle Questionnaire
2.7. Strength Assessment
2.7.1. 1 RM Test
2.7.2. Isometric Knee Extension
2.8. Body Composition and Anthropometric Measurements
2.8.1. DXA
2.8.2. B-Mode US
2.9. Blood Analysis
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Nutrient Intakes
3.2. Body Composition and Anthropometry
3.3. Blood Hormones
3.4. Muscle Strength
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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All Subjects (N = 42) | AS Group (n = 14) | BB Group (n = 14) | C Group (n = 14) | F | P | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age, y | 21 ± 1.5 | 21 ± 1.7 | 22 ± 1.3 | 21 ± 1.4 | 0.737 | 0.485 |
Height, cm | 177.3 ± 5.25 | 179.9 ± 5.21 | 175.3 ± 4.16 | 176.6 ± 5.47 | 3.27 | 0.490 |
Weight, kg | 70.1 ± 9.32 | 72.2 ± 11.29 | 66.9 ± 7.31 | 71.3 ± 8.70 | 1.291 | 0.286 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 22.2 ± 2.24 | 22.2 ± 2.51 | 21.9 ± 1.94 | 22.5 ± 2.35 | 0.34 | 0.714 |
25(OH)D, ng/mL | 14.3 ± 5.72 | 12.5 ± 3.91 | 16.1 ± 7.25 | 14.2 ± 5.34 | 1.424 | 0.253 |
All Subjects (N = 42) | AS Group (n = 14) | BB Group (n = 14) | C Group (n = 14) | F | P | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy intake, kcal/d | 1873 ± 503 | 1989 ± 396 | 1981 ± 341 | 2048 ± 622 | 4.15 | 0.24 |
Protein, g/d | 92 ± 30 | 87 ± 20 | 82 ± 30 | 97 ± 33 | 2.874 | 0.068 |
Protein, g/kg BW/d | 1.3 ± 0.49 | 1.3 ± 0.44 | 1.2 ± 0.46 | 1.4 ± 0.53 | 1.485 | 0.239 |
Breakfast | 0.2 ± 0.09 | 0.2 ± 0.09 | 0.2 ± 0.06 | 0.2 ± 0.09 | 0.056 | 0.946 |
Lunch | 0.5 ± 0.23 | 0.5 ± 0.22 | 0.5 ± 0.20 | 0.5 ± 0.27 | 0.962 | 0.351 |
Dinner | 0.6 ± 0.31 | 0.6 ± 0.28 | 0.5 ± 0.20 | 0.6 ± 0.33 | 1.886 | 0.165 |
Fat, g/d | 72 ± 24 | 79 ± 26 | 61 ± 17 | 75 ± 24 | 3.416 | 0.431 |
CHO, g/d | 232 ± 78 | 253 ± 57 | 295 ± 56 | 249 ± 60 | 2.546 | 0.091 |
All Subjects (N = 42) | AS Group (n = 14) | BB Group (n = 14) | C Group (n = 14) | F | P ➂ | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total ➀ | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 2393 ± 467 | 2428 ± 487 | 2417 ± 449 | 2397 ± 461 | 3.21 | 0. 443 |
Protein, g | 126 ± 28 | 130 ± 11 | 133 ± 21 | 117 ± 25 | 1.69 | 0.554 |
Protein, g/kg BW | 1.6 ± 0.51 | 1.7 ± 0.27 | 1.7 ± 0.50 | 1.4 ± 0.37 | 1.221 | 0.361 |
Fat, g | 85 ± 21 | 90 ± 19 | 80 ± 26 | 89 ± 25 | 2.989 | 0.334 |
CHO, g | 270 ± 53 | 285 ± 56 | 281 ± 45 | 272 ± 54 | 3.315 | 0.182 |
VD, ug | 68.6 ± 47.59 | 101.8 ± 0.80 | 102.0 ± 1.09 | 2.1 ± 1.85 | 263.991 | <0.001 |
Breakfast | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 541 ± 181 | 637 ± 120 | 450 ± 155 | 535 ± 109 | 20.529 | <0.001 |
Protein, g | 27 ± 15 | 41 ± 7 | 17 ± 8 | 22 ± 8 | 43.971 | <0.001 |
Protein, g/kg BW | 0.3 ± 0.12 | 0.5 ± 0.13 | 0.2 ± 0.14 | 0.2 ± 0.09 | 19.376 | <0.001 |
Fat, g | 18 ± 7 | 18 ± 6 | 17 ± 7 | 19 ± 7 | 2.436 | 0.101 |
CHO, g | 68 ± 24 | 78 ± 18 | 58 ± 21 | 68 ± 15 | 17.209 | <0.001 |
Lunch | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 658 ± 151 | 711 ± 134 | 684 ± 154 | 706 ± 146 | 2.799 | 0.073 |
Protein, g | 39 ± 10 | 38 ± 8 | 39 ± 9 | 38 ± 9 | 2.651 | 0.832 |
Protein, g/kg BW | 0.5 ± 0.15 | 0.5 ± 1.46 | 0.6 ± 0.16 | 0.5 ± 0.12 | 1.862 | 0.731 |
Fat, g | 26 ± 8 | 28 ± 8 | 22 ± 8 | 27 ± 7 | 2.436 | 0.101 |
CHO, g | 79 ± 21 | 77 ± 19 | 83 ± 21 | 77 ± 17 | 4.126 | 0.213 |
Dinner | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 746 ± 229 | 778 ± 153 | 697 ± 145 | 762 ± 210 | 3.294 | 0.048 |
Protein, g | 39 ± 11 | 37 ± 7 | 40 ± 9 | 40 ± 12 | 3.045 | 0.059 |
Protein, g/kg BW | 0.5 ± 0.18 | 0.5 ± 0.13 | 0.6 ± 0.16 | 0.6 ± 0.22 | 1.736 | 0.102 |
Fat, g | 27 ± 10 | 30 ± 9 | 24 ± 9 | 28 ± 12 | 2.27 | 0.117 |
CHO, g | 85 ± 27 | 90 ± 17 | 78 ± 19 | 89 ± 36 | 2.874 | 0.068 |
Snacks ➁ | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 397 ± 214 | 455 ± 214 | 372 ± 257 | 365 ± 152 | 0.474 | 0.628 |
Protein, g | 17 ± 14 | 14 ± 9 | 20 ± 19 | 16 ± 9 | 0.388 | 0.683 |
Fat, g | 16 ± 12 | 18 ± 10 | 17 ± 16 | 12 ± 7 | 0.525 | 0.598 |
CHO, g | 46 ± 30 | 59 ± 35 | 36 ± 31 | 43 ± 19 | 1.494 | 0.244 |
AS Group | BB Group | C Group | Group | Time | Group * Time | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Body weight, kg | Pre | 72.2 ± 11.29 | 66.9 ± 7.31 | 71.3 ± 8.70 | 0.244 | 0.043 | 0.8 |
Post | 72.9 ± 11.22 | 67.2 ± 9.04 | 71.9 ± 8.15 | ||||
Change (95% CI) | 0.756 (−0.193 to 1.705) | 0.322 (−0.627 to 1.271) | 0.626 (−0.323 to 1.575) | ||||
Fat mass, kg | Pre | 12.8 ± 5.35 | 12.0 ± 5.29 | 13.3 ± 5.50 | 0.676 | <0.001 | 0.091 |
Post | 12.1 ± 5.12 | 10.9 ± 4.56 | 13.0 ± 5.23 | ||||
Change | −0.718 * (−1.216 to 0.221) | −1.070 * (−1.567 to −0.573) | −0.287 (−0.784 to 0.210) | ||||
Fat mass % | Pre | 17.3 ± 5.05 | 17.5 ± 5.37 | 18.2 ± 5.37 | 0.782 | <0.001 | 0.047 |
Post | 16.2 ± 4.95 | 16.0 ± 5.12 | 17.7 ± 5.14 | ||||
Change | −1.11 * (−1.67 to −0.56) | −1.50 *# (−2.05 to −0.95) | −0.514 (−1.06 to 0.04) | ||||
Total LTM, kg | Pre | 56.2 ± 7.12 | 52.6 ± 4.21 | 55.1 ± 4.53 | 0.266 | <0.001 | 0.003 |
Post | 57.7 ± 7.12 | 54.4 ± 4.54 | 55.6 ± 5.05 | ||||
Change | 1.488 * (0.940 to 2.036) | 1.847 * (1.299 to 2.394) | 0.5 (0.048 to 1.047) | ||||
Total LTM% | Pre | 78.4 ± 4.84 | 79.0 ± 5.49 | 77.7 ± 5.04 | 0.419 | <0.001 | 0.001 |
Post | 79.6 ± 4.70 | 81.2 ± 5.22 $ | 77.6 ± 4.39 | ||||
Change | 1.21 *# (0.35 to 2.09) | 2.2 *# (1.40 to 3.13) | −0.14 (−1.01 to 0.72) | ||||
Leg-LTM, kg | Pre | 19.1 ± 2.92 | 18.1 ± 1.54 | 19.7 ± 1.86 | 0.242 | <0.001 | 0.004 |
Post | 19.7 ± 2.88 | 18.8 ± 1.54 | 19.9 ± 1.94 | ||||
Change | 0.556 *# (0.338 to 0.773) | 0.618 *# (0.401 to 0.835) | 0.117 (−0.1 to 0.334) | ||||
Leg fat mass, kg | Pre | 4.3 ± 1.68 | 3.8 ± 1.35 | 4.6 ± 1.70 | 0.439 | <0.001 | 0.18 |
Post | 4.0 ± 1.63 | 3.7 ± 1.26 | 4.4 ± 1.63 | ||||
Change | −0.276 * (−0.386 to 0.165) | −0.188 * (−0.298 to −0.077) | −0.13 * (−0.241 to −0.020) | ||||
App-LTM, kg | Pre | 25.9 ± 3.91 | 24.6 ± 2.10 | 26.3 ± 2.42 | 0.341 | <0.001 | 0.078 |
Post | 26.6 ± 2.02 | 25.2 ± 2.07 | 26.6 ± 2.50 | ||||
Change | 0.759 * (0.463 to 1.054) | 0.655 * (0.360 to 0.951) | 0.3 * (0.005 to 0.595) | ||||
App-LTM % | Pre | 35.9 ± 2.41 | 36.9 ± 2.62 | 37.0 ± 2.24 | 0.446 | 0.009 | 0.208 |
Post | 36.6 ± 2.29 | 37.7 ± 2.41 | 37.1 ± 1.88 | ||||
Change | 0.64 * (0.03 to 1.25) | 0.76 * (0.150 to 1.37) | 0.04 (−0.57 to 0.65) | ||||
Bone mineral density, g/cm2 | Pre | 1.27 ± 0.137 | 1.24 ± 0.102 | 1.22 ± 0.107 | 0.56 | 0.311 | 0.164 |
Post | 1.28 ± 0.130 | 1.23 ± 0.093 | 1.24 ± 0.110 | ||||
Change | 0.009 (−0.10 to 0.027) | −0.009 (−0.027 to 0.010) | 0.016 (−0.002 to 0.035) |
AS Group (n = 14) | BB Group (n = 14) | C Group (n = 14) | Group | Time | Group * Time | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | ||||
Testosterone, nmol/L | 19.3 ± 4.14 | 22.0 ± 5.80 | 18.6 ± 4.15 | 21.7 ± 4.78 | 20.2 ± 3.82 | 19.6 ± 4.79 | 0.901 | <0.001 | 0.001 |
Cortisol, nmol/L | 364.9 ± 47.45 | 315.1 ± 64.98 | 353.3 ± 73.16 | 295.4 ± 95.50 $ | 316.3 ± 85.18 | 372.9 ± 65.33 | 0.67 | 0.164 | <0.001 |
Insulin-likegrowth factor-1, nmol/L | 8.1 ± 5.98 | 11.9 ± 5.92 | 8.7 ± 4.17 | 15.8 ± 3.95 $ | 12.4 ± 5.39 | 13.3 ± 5.34 | 0.291 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Irisin, ng/mL | 154.5 ± 34.43 | 190.3 ± 54.92 | 156.8 ± 34.04 | 200.1 ± 69.87 | 171.7 ± 49.98 | 164.7 ± 44.30 | 0.828 | 0.001 | 0.009 |
Myostatin, ng/mL | 0.54 ± 0.334 | 0.37 ± 0.294 | 0.58 ± 0.247 | 0.39 ± 9.293 | 0.51 ± 0.210 | 0.48 ± 0.280 | 0.895 | 0.002 | 0.237 |
25(OH)D, ng/mL | 12.49 ± 3.91 | 24.37 ± 6.41 $ | 16.10 ± 7.25 | 21.76 ± 8.07 $ | 14.16 ± 5.34 | 13.67 ± 5.34 | 0.032 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
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Chen, Y.; Liang, Y.; Guo, H.; Meng, K.; Qiu, J.; Benardot, D. Muscle-Related Effect of Whey Protein and Vitamin D3 Supplementation Provided before or after Bedtime in Males Undergoing Resistance Training. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2289. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112289
Chen Y, Liang Y, Guo H, Meng K, Qiu J, Benardot D. Muscle-Related Effect of Whey Protein and Vitamin D3 Supplementation Provided before or after Bedtime in Males Undergoing Resistance Training. Nutrients. 2022; 14(11):2289. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112289
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Yan, Yiheng Liang, Hang Guo, Kun Meng, Junqiang Qiu, and Dan Benardot. 2022. "Muscle-Related Effect of Whey Protein and Vitamin D3 Supplementation Provided before or after Bedtime in Males Undergoing Resistance Training" Nutrients 14, no. 11: 2289. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112289