Comparing Associations of Dietary Energy Density and Energy Intake, Macronutrients with Obesity in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (JDDM 63)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Outcome Measure
2.3. Dietary Assessment
2.4. Calculation of DED
2.5. Other Variables
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Compliance with Ethics Guidelines
References
- Feldstein, A.C.; Nichols, G.A.; Smith, D.H.; Stevens, V.J.; Bachman, K.; Rosales, A.G.; Perrin, N. Weight change in diabetes and glycemic and blood pressure control. Diabetes Care 2008, 31, 1960–1965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Goldstein, D.J. Beneficial health effects of modest weight loss. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. J. Int. Assoc. Study Obes. 1992, 16, 397–415. [Google Scholar]
- Kramer, H.; Reboussin, D.; Bertoni, A.G.; Marcovina, S.; Lipkin, E.; Greenway, F.L., 3rd; Brancati, F.L. Obesity and albuminuria among adults with type 2 diabetes: The Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes) Study. Diabetes Care 2009, 32, 851–853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ridderstrale, M.; Gudbjornsdottir, S.; Eliasson, B.; Nilsson, P.M.; Cederholm, J. Obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: Results from the Swedish National Diabetes Register. J. Intern. Med. 2006, 259, 314–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.G.; Singleton, J.R. Obesity and hyperlipidemia are risk factors for early diabetic neuropathy. J. Diabetes Complicat. 2013, 27, 436–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lean, M.E.; Leslie, W.S.; Barnes, A.C.; Brosnahan, N.; Thom, G.; McCombie, L.; Peters, C.; Zhyzhneuskaya, S.; Al-Mrabeh, A.; Hollingsworth, K.G.; et al. Primary care-led weight management for remission of type 2 diabetes (DiRECT): An open-label, cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 2017, 391, 541–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dworatzek, P.D.; Arcudi, K.; Gougeon, R.; Husein, N.; Sievenpiper, J.L.; Williams, S.L. Nutrition Therapy. Can. J. Diabetes 2013, 37, S45–S55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Evert, A.B.; Boucher, J.L.; Cypress, M.; Dunbar, S.A.; Franz, M.J.; Mayer-Davis, E.J.; Neumiller, J.J.; Nwankwo, R.; Verdi, C.L.; Urbanski, P.; et al. Nutrition Therapy Recommendations for the Management of Adults with Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013, 37 (Suppl. 1), S120–S143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mann, J.; De Leeuw, I.; Hermansen, K.; Karamanos, B.; Karlström, B.; Katsilambros, N.; Riccardi, G.; Rivellese, A.; Rizkalla, S.; Slama, G.; et al. Evidence-based nutritional approaches to the treatment and prevention of diabetes mellitus. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2004, 14, 373–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Araki, E.; Goto, A.; Kondo, T.; Noda, M.; Noto, H.; Origasa, H.; Osawa, H.; Taguchi, A.; Tanizawa, Y.; Tobe, K.; et al. Japanese clinical practice guideline for diabetes 2019. Diabetol. Int. 2020, 11, 165–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sone, H.; Tanaka, S.; Iimuro, S.; Oida, K.; Yamasaki, Y.; Oikawa, S.; Ishibashi, S.; Katayama, S.; Yamashita, H.; Tanaka, S.; et al. Long-term lifestyle intervention lowers the incidence of stroke in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: A nationwide multicentre randomised controlled trial (the Japan Diabetes Complications Study). Diabetologia 2010, 53, 419–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Astrup, A.; Grunwald, G.K.; Melanson, E.L.; Saris, W.H.; Hill, J.O. The role of low-fat diets in body weight control: A meta-analysis of ad libitum dietary intervention studies. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. J. Int. Assoc. Study Obes. 2000, 24, 1545–1552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Naude, C.E.; Schoonees, A.; Senekal, M.; Young, T.; Garner, P.; Volmink, J. Low Carbohydrate Versus Isoenergetic Balanced Diets for Reducing Weight and Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e100652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Azadbakht, L.; Haghighatdoost, F.; Esmaillzadeh, A. Dietary energy density is inversely associated with the diet quality indices among Iranian young adults. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 2012, 58, 29–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rolls, B.J. The Ultimate Volumetrics Diet; Morrow: New York, NY, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Foundation, B.N. What Is Energy Density? Available online: https://www.nutrition.org.uk/healthyliving/fuller/what-is-energy-density.html?limit=1&start=1 (accessed on 6 September 2021).
- Ledikwe, J.; Blanck, H.M.; Khan, L.K.; Serdula, M.K.; Seymour, J.D.; Tohill, B.C.; Rolls, B.J. Low-energy-density diets are associated with high diet quality in adults in the United States. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2006, 106, 1172–1180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esmaillzadeh, A.; Azadbakht, L. Dietary energy density and the metabolic syndrome among Iranian women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, 598–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ledikwe, J.H.; Blanck, H.M.; Khan, L.K.; Serdula, M.K.; Seymour, J.D.; Tohill, B.C.; Rolls, B.J. Dietary energy density is associated with energy intake and weight status in US adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1362–1368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mendoza, J.A.; Drewnowski, A.; Christakis, D.A. Dietary Energy Density Is Associated with Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome in U.S. Adults. Diabetes Care 2007, 30, 974–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Savage, J.S.; Marini, M.; Birch, L.L. Dietary energy density predicts women’s weight change over 6 y. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 677–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomson, C.A.; Crane, T.E.; Garcia, D.O.; Wertheim, B.C.; Hingle, M.; Snetselaar, L.; Datta, M.; Rohan, T.; LeBlanc, E.; Chlebowski, R.T.; et al. Association between Dietary Energy Density and Obesity-Associated Cancer: Results from the Women’s Health Initiative. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 118, 617–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gabriel, A.S.; Ninomiya, K.; Uneyama, H. The role of the Japanese traditional diet in healthy and sustainable dietary patterns around the world. Nutrients 2018, 10, 173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Asano, M.; Kushida, M.; Yamamoto, K.; Tomata, Y.; Tsuji, I.; Tsuduki, T. Abdominal fat in individuals with overweight reduced by consumption of a 1975 Japanese diet: A randomized controlled trial. Obesity 2019, 27, 899–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sugawara, S.; Kushida, M.; Iwagaki, Y.; Asano, M.; Yamamoto, K.; Tomata, Y.; Tsuji, I.; Tsuduki, T. The 1975 Type Japanese Diet Improves Lipid Metabolic Parameters in Younger Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Oleo Sci. 2018, 67, 599–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yuji, M. New Criteria for ‘Obesity Disease’ in Japan. Circ. J. 2002, 66, 987–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Takahashi, K.; Yoshimura, Y.; Kaimoto, T.; Kunii, D.; Komatsu, T.; Yamamoto, S. Validation of a food frequency questionnaire based on food groups for estimating individual nutrient intake. Jpn. J. Nutr. Diet. 2001, 59, 221–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ledikwe, J.H.; Blanck, H.M.; Khan, L.K.; Serdula, M.K.; Seymour, J.D.; Tohill, B.C.; Rolls, B.J. Dietary energy density determined by eight calculation methods in a nationally representative United States population. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 273–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Murase, N.; Katsumura, T.; Ueda, C.; Inoue, S.; Shimomitsu, T. Validity and reliability of Japanese version of International Physical Activity Questionnaire. J. Health Welf. Stat. 2002, 49, 1–9. [Google Scholar]
- Du, H.; Van Der, D.L.; Ginder, V.; Jebb, S.A.; Forouhi, N.G.; Wareham, N.J.; Halkjær, J.; Tjønneland, A.; Overvad, K.; Jakobsen, M.U.; et al. Dietary energy density in relation to subsequent changes of weight and waist circumference in European men and women. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, e5339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kant, A.K.; Graubard, B.I. Energy density of diets reported by American adults: Association with food group intake, nutrient intake, and body weight. Int. J. Obes. 2005, 29, 950–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Richter, A.; Heidemann, C.; Schulze, M.B.; Roosen, J.; Thiele, S.; Mensink, G.B. Dietary patterns of adolescents in Germany—Associations with nutrient intake and other health related lifestyle characteristics. BMC Pediatr. 2012, 12, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Murakami, K.; Livingstone, M.B.E.; Okubo, H.; Sasaki, S. Energy density of the diets of Japanese adults in relation to food and nutrient intake and general and abdominal obesity: A cross-sectional analysis from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey, Japan. Br. J. Nutr. 2017, 117, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bell, E.A.; Rolls, B.J. Energy density of foods affects energy intake across multiple levels of fat content in lean and obese women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 73, 1010–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howarth, N.C.; Saltzman, E.; Roberts, S.B. Dietary fiber and weight regulation. Nutr. Rev. 2001, 59, 129–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fogelholm, M.; Anderssen, S.; Gunnarsdottir, I.; Lahti-Koski, M. Dietary macronutrients and food consumption as determinants of long-term weight change in adult populations: A systematic literature review. Food Nutr. Res. 2012, 56, 19103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Turnbaugh, P.; Bäckhed, F.; Fulton, L.; Gordon, J.I. Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe 2008, 3, 213–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ledikwe, J.H.; Rolls, B.J.; Smiciklas-Wright, H.; Mitchell, D.C.; Ard, J.; Champagne, C.; Karanja, N.; Lin, P.-H.; Stevens, V.J.; Appel, L.J. Reductions in dietary energy density are associated with weight loss in overweight and obese participants in the PREMIER trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 1212–1221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoon, K.-H.; Lee, J.-H.; Kim, J.-W.; Cho, J.H.; Choi, Y.H.; Ko, S.-H.; Zimmet, P.; Son, H.-Y. Epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes in Asia. Lancet 2006, 368, 1681–1688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energy Density (kcal/g) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | ||
<1.34 | 1.35–1.44 | 1.45–1.55 | 1.56–1.70 | ≥1.71 | p for Trend | |
n | 317 | 307 | 314 | 354 | 323 | |
Energy density | 1.23 ± 0.09 | 1.39 ± 0.03 | 1.50 ± 0.03 | 1.62 ± 0.04 | 1.86 ± 0.16 | <0.001 |
Women (%) | 177 (55.8) | 135 (44.0) | 112 (35.7) | 110 (31.1) | 76 (23.5) | <0.001 |
Age (years) | 67.4 ± 10.1 | 63.8 ± 11.2 | 64 ± 12.1 | 60.6 ± 12.1 | 54.4 ± 11.3 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.2 ± 3.9 | 25.4 ± 4.5 | 25.8 ± 4.6 | 26.3 ± 4.7 | 27.6 ± 5.0 | <0.001 |
Duration (years) | 13.1 ± 9.1 | 11.9 ± 7.6 | 11.6 ± 7.8 | 10.8 ± 7.2 | 9.4 ± 7.6 | <0.001 |
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 127.3 ± 15.3 | 126.9 ± 14.9 | 127.5 ± 14.5 | 127.4 ± 15.4 | 125.1 ± 14.8 | 0.177 |
HbA1c (%) (mmol/mol) | 7.2 (55) ± 1.1 | 7.2 (55) ± 1.1 | 7.2 (55) ± 1.0 | 7.3 (56) ± 1.2 | 7.5 (56) ± 1.3 | 0.003 |
Non-HDL Cholesterol (mmol/L) | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 0.072 |
Treated by Insulin (%) | 102 (32.2) | 109 (35.5) | 87 (27.7) | 90 (25.4) | 73 (22.6) | 0.002 |
OHA without Insulin (%) | 171 (53.9) | 160 (52.1) | 180 (57.3) | 204 (57.6) | 191 (59.1) | 0.366 |
Physical Activity (METs·h/w) | 31.1 ± 39.2 | 25.5 ± 35.3 | 28.6 ± 39.7 | 33.5 ± 45.8 | 31.6 ± 49.2 | 0.224 |
Current Smoker (%) | 33 (10.4) | 46 (15.0) | 47 (15.0) | 85 (24.0) | 101 (31.3) | <0.001 |
Energy (kcal) | 1618 ± 411 | 1757 ± 409 | 1798 ± 394 | 1818 ± 514 | 1855 ± 571 | <0.001 |
Volume of food (g) | 1209 ± 289 | 1171 ± 272 | 1116 ± 237 | 1039 ± 303 | 918 ± 293 | <0.001 |
Fat (g) | 50 ± 14.6 | 56.9 ± 18.3 | 59 ± 17.5 | 60.7 ± 21.1 | 66.2 ± 27.5 | <0.001 |
(% Energy) | 28.0 ± 5.4 | 28.9 ± 5.2 | 29.3 ± 4.9 | 29.9 ± 5.4 | 31.6 ± 5.8 | <0.001 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 216 ± 63.1 | 228.6 ± 55.7 | 235.5 ± 53.9 | 236.2 ± 72.8 | 233.2 ± 69.7 | <0.001 |
(% Energy) | 55.9 ± 6.9 | 55.6 ± 6.4 | 55.9 ± 6.2 | 55.8 ± 6.7 | 55.0 ± 6.9 | 0.196 |
Protein (g) | 65.0 ± 17.7 | 68.1 ± 18.6 | 66.6 ± 16.8 | 65.0 ± 20.8 | 62.5 ± 25.2 | <0.001 |
(% Energy) | 16.1 ± 2.2 | 15.5 ± 2.1 | 14.8 ± 2.0 | 14.3 ± 1.9 | 13.4 ± 2.0 | <0.001 |
Total Dietary Fiber (g) | 15.8 ± 4 | 13.9 ± 3.7 | 12.7 ± 3.5 | 11.5 ± 4.1 | 9.8 ± 3.4 | <0.001 |
Soluble Dietary Fiber (g) | 3.6 ± 1.0 | 3.2 ± 1.0 | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 1.1 | 2.4 ± 0.9 | <0.001 |
Insoluble Dietary Fiber (g) | 11.4 ± 2.9 | 10.0 ± 2.7 | 9.2 ± 2.5 | 8.3 ± 2.9 | 7.0 ± 2.5 | <0.001 |
Salt (g) | 8.5 ± 3.3 | 8.9 ± 3.3 | 9.0 ± 3.0 | 8.6 ± 3.4 | 8.0 ± 3.3 | 0.018 |
Steamed white rice (g) | 229.4 ± 123.8 | 258.6 ± 121.4 | 274.4 ± 109.8 | 268.9 ± 140.7 | 247.2 ± 124.8 | 0.036 |
Bread (g) | 28.9 ± 28.6 | 33.3 ± 32.4 | 33.3 ± 30.3 | 36.9 ± 37.6 | 44.7 ± 40.5 | <0.001 |
Noodles (g) | 61.6 ± 56.1 | 65.5 ± 60.0 | 66.7 ± 56.2 | 66.2 ± 55.6 | 65.3 ± 54.7 | 0.418 |
Potato (g) | 38.9 ± 34.2 | 30.4 ± 28.0 | 30.5 ± 24.6 | 24.9 ± 24.7 | 16.8 ± 17.2 | <0.001 |
Green and yellow vegetables (g) | 123.5 ± 48.1 | 98.2 ± 40.3 | 78.9 ± 37.3 | 62.2 ± 35.0 | 41.7 ± 29.9 | <0.001 |
Other vegetables (g) | 230.2 ± 77.5 | 186 ± 68.7 | 149.9 ± 66.0 | 119.6 ± 63.1 | 79.3 ± 48.0 | <0.001 |
Seaweed (g) | 6.6 ± 4.6 | 5.3 ± 3.4 | 4.8 ± 3.8 | 4.0 ± 3.3 | 3.0 ± 3.1 | <0.001 |
Beans (g) | 80.6 ± 48.3 | 66.8 ± 42.1 | 63.4 ± 40.9 | 53.1 ± 38.0 | 41.5 ± 33.5 | <0.001 |
Seafood and fish (g) | 83.4 ± 46.2 | 85.3 ± 46.5 | 74.7 ± 42.1 | 69.2 ± 42.4 | 52.5 ± 54.7 | <0.001 |
Meat (g) | 53.1 ± 33.5 | 72.2 ± 45.5 | 78.5 ± 47.6 | 83.2 ± 52.0 | 95.1 ± 67.7 | <0.001 |
Eggs (g) | 26.5 ± 17.3 | 27.4 ± 19.4 | 28.0 ± 18.8 | 27.3 ± 20.7 | 26.8 ± 18.2 | 0.876 |
Milk (g) | 94.7 ± 104.6 | 90.3 ± 95.3 | 83.0 ± 77.8 | 73.4 ± 75.2 | 72.0 ± 96.2 | <0.001 |
Dairy products (g) | 52.9 ± 38.3 | 56.9 ± 44.5 | 48.5 ± 37.8 | 45.7 ± 37.9 | 42.2 ± 38.0 | <0.001 |
Fruits (g) | 124.3 ± 74.9 | 100.5 ± 70.5 | 87.0 ± 66.3 | 71.1 ± 64.0 | 35.6 ± 41.1 | <0.001 |
Confectionery (g) | 28.0 ± 24.5 | 38.8 ± 33.1 | 49.4 ± 38.6 | 60.6 ± 43.1 | 81.7 ± 56.2 | <0.001 |
Alcohol (g) | 75.3 ± 126.4 | 83.7 ± 131.3 | 76.3 ± 135.8 | 85.8 ± 132.7 | 94.7 ± 156.2 | 0.089 |
Other beverages (g) | 16.5 ± 71.9 | 23.5 ± 62.6 | 36.4 ± 78.6 | 55.9 ± 115.6 | 73.7 ± 126.3 | <0.001 |
Sugar (g) | 8.4 ± 5.3 | 8.1 ± 5.7 | 7.9 ± 5.4 | 6.6 ± 5.0 | 5.2 ± 5.2 | <0.001 |
Seeds (g) | 3.3 ± 5.3 | 2.8 ± 4.8 | 2.6 ± 4.8 | 3.1 ± 5.2 | 3.0 ± 7.1 | 0.946 |
Oil and fat (g) | 9.9 ± 7.2 | 11.9 ± 7.9 | 13.1 ± 8.8 | 12.4 ± 7.4 | 13.4 ± 7.3 | <0.001 |
Seasoning and spices (g) | 19.7 ± 10.8 | 22.6 ± 12.5 | 24.3 ± 13.2 | 24 ± 13.7 | 23.4 ± 13.2 | <0.001 |
Range | Case/n | ORs (95% CI) | p | p for Trend | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DED (kcal/g) | Q1 | –1.34 | 118/316 | Ref. | <0.001 | |
Q2 | 1.35–1.44 | 140/325 | 1.58 (1.13–2.20) | 0.007 | ||
Q3 | 1.45–1.55 | 175/315 | 1.66 (1.19–2.32) | 0.003 | ||
Q4 | 1.56–1.70 | 186/319 | 2.24 (1.61–3.12) | <0.001 | ||
Q5 | 1.71– | 239/340 | 2.99 (2.01–3.12) | <0.001 | ||
Energy intake (kcal) | Q1 | –1416.4 | 172/323 | Ref. | 0.224 | |
Q2 | 1416.5–1624.7 | 163/323 | 0.88 (0.63–1.21) | 0.418 | ||
Q3 | 1624.8–1829.4 | 167/323 | 1.01 (0.73–1.39) | 0.963 | ||
Q4 | 1829.5–2081.1 | 173/322 | 1.03 (0.74–1.43) | 0.863 | ||
Q5 | 2081.2– | 183/324 | 1.17 (0.84–1.63) | 0.361 | ||
Fat (g) | Q1 | –42.1 | 163/322 | Ref. | 0.173 | |
Q2 | 42.2–51.6 | 164/320 | 1.02 (0.74–1.41) | 0.887 | ||
Q3 | 51.7–60.4 | 161/327 | 0.89 (0.65–1.23) | 0.484 | ||
Q4 | 60.6–72.9 | 175/323 | 1.11 (0.80–1.54) | 0.529 | ||
Q5 | 73.0– | 195/323 | 1.25 (0.90–1.74) | 0.187 | ||
Carbohydrate (g) | Q1 | –186.4 | 172/323 | Ref. | 0.041 | |
Q2 | 186.5–214.6 | 157/320 | 0.89 (0.64–1.23) | 0.483 | ||
Q3 | 214.7–238.3 | 170/326 | 1.14 (0.82–1.58) | 0.427 | ||
Q4 | 238.4–271.5 | 185/323 | 1.30 (0.94–1.81) | 0.114 | ||
Q5 | 271.7– | 174/323 | 1.22 (0.88–1.70) | 0.240 | ||
Protein (g) | Q1 | –49.4 | 185/319 | Ref. | 0.595 | |
Q2 | 49.5–59.6 | 174/327 | 0.87 (0.63–1.20) | 0.389 | ||
Q3 | 59.7–68.1 | 158/318 | 0.78 (0.56–1.08) | 0.137 | ||
Q4 | 68.2–79.2 | 167/327 | 0.82 (0.59–1.14) | 0.243 | ||
Q5 | 79.3– | 174/324 | 0.93 (0.67–1.29) | 0.654 |
β (95% CIs) | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|
DED | |||
age, sex adjusted | 0.64 (0.41–0.88) | <0.001 | |
multivariate adjusted | 0.65 (0.41–0.88) | <0.001 | |
Energy Intake | |||
age, sex adjusted | 0.22 (0.00–0.44) | 0.051 | |
multivariate adjusted | 0.29 (0.07–0.51) | 0.011 | |
Fat | |||
age, sex adjusted | 0.35 (0.13–0.57) | 0.002 | |
multivariate adjusted | 0.38 (0.16–0.60) | 0.001 | |
Carbohydrate | |||
age, sex adjusted | 0.19 (−0.03–0.40) | 0.090 | |
multivariate adjusted | 0.21 (−0.01–0.43) | 0.059 | |
Protein | |||
age, sex adjusted | 0.05 (−0.16–0.27) | 0.624 | |
multivariate adjusted | 0.08 (−1.35–0.30) | 0.462 |
ORs (95% CIs) | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|
DED | |||
age, sex adjusted | 1.45 (1.29–1.64) | <0.001 | |
multivariate adjusted | 1.48 (1.31–1.67) | <0.001 | |
Energy Intake | |||
age, sex adjusted | 1.09 (0.99–1.21) | 0.089 | |
multivariate adjusted | 1.14 (1.03–1.27) | 0.015 | |
Fat | |||
age, sex adjusted | 1.13 (1.02–1.26) | 0.021 | |
multivariate adjusted | 1.16 (1.04–1.29) | 0.007 | |
Carbohydrate | |||
age, sex adjusted | 1.08 (0.98–1.20) | 0.127 | |
multivariate adjusted | 1.12 (1.00–1.24) | 0.042 | |
Protein | |||
age, sex adjusted | 1.00 (0.91–1.11) | 0.958 | |
multivariate adjusted | 1.03 (0.92–1.14) | 0.636 |
Food Groups | Standardized β | p Value |
---|---|---|
Confectioneries | 0.19 | <0.001 |
Bread | 0.10 | <0.001 |
Oil and fat | 0.09 | <0.001 |
Meat | 0.06 | <0.001 |
Seeds | 0.05 | <0.001 |
Sugar | 0.02 | 0.147 |
Seasoning and spices | −0.01 | 0.507 |
Seaweed | −0.02 | 0.079 |
Eggs | −0.06 | <0.001 |
Noodles | −0.07 | <0.001 |
Beans | −0.09 | <0.001 |
Dairy products | −0.09 | <0.001 |
Potato | −0.10 | <0.001 |
Seafood and fish | −0.13 | <0.001 |
Steamed white rice | −0.14 | <0.001 |
Green and yellow vegetables | −0.25 | <0.001 |
Fruits | −0.31 | <0.001 |
Other vegetables | −0.43 | <0.001 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Takeda, Y.; Fujihara, K.; Nedachi, R.; Ikeda, I.; Morikawa, S.Y.; Hatta, M.; Horikawa, C.; Kato, M.; Kato, N.; Yokoyama, H.; et al. Comparing Associations of Dietary Energy Density and Energy Intake, Macronutrients with Obesity in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (JDDM 63). Nutrients 2021, 13, 3167. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093167
Takeda Y, Fujihara K, Nedachi R, Ikeda I, Morikawa SY, Hatta M, Horikawa C, Kato M, Kato N, Yokoyama H, et al. Comparing Associations of Dietary Energy Density and Energy Intake, Macronutrients with Obesity in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (JDDM 63). Nutrients. 2021; 13(9):3167. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093167
Chicago/Turabian StyleTakeda, Yasunaga, Kazuya Fujihara, Rina Nedachi, Izumi Ikeda, Sakiko Yoshizawa Morikawa, Mariko Hatta, Chika Horikawa, Mitsutoshi Kato, Noriko Kato, Hiroki Yokoyama, and et al. 2021. "Comparing Associations of Dietary Energy Density and Energy Intake, Macronutrients with Obesity in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (JDDM 63)" Nutrients 13, no. 9: 3167. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093167