Socioeconomic and Geographic Pattern of Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity among Children Aged 6–23 Months Old in Ghana
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Conceptual Framework
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Data
2.2. Ethical Statement
2.3. Description of Variables
2.3.1. Outcome Variable
2.3.2. Main Independent Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Specific Food Items, Food Groups, Dietary Diversity, and Socio-Demographic Information of the Study Population
3.2. Average Consumption of Specific Food Items, Food Groups, and Dietary Diversity Consumption by Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.3. Logistic Regression Model (ORs with 95% CI) for an Association between Specific Food Items, Food Groups, ADDC, and Socioeconomic Characteristics
3.4. Average Predictive Margins (APMs) for an Association between Specific Food Consumption, Food Groups, ADDC, and Geographical Locations
3.5. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Dietary diversity intake | ||
Adequate | 68 | 12.8 |
Inadequate | 466 | 87.2 |
Dietary diversity score—mean (CI 95%) | 2.63 (2.29–2.77) |
Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Dietary diversity intake | ||
Adequate | 68 | 12.8 |
Inadequate | 466 | 87.2 |
Dietary diversity score—mean (CI 95%) | 2.63 (2.29–2.77) |
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Food Groups | Food Items |
---|---|
1. Breastfeeding | Breast milk |
2. Grains, roots and tubers | Soup/clear broth or bread, noodles, other grains or fortified baby food or potatoes, cassava, tubers |
3. Legumes and nuts | Beans, peas and lentils |
4. Dairy products | Formula milk or tinned powdered/fresh milk or cheese, yogurt, other milk products, or yogurt |
5. Flesh foods | Liver, heart, other organ meat or fish, shellfish or chicken, duck or other birds, |
6. Eggs | Eggs |
7. Vitamin-A rich fruits and vegetables | Pumpkins, carrots, squash or dark green leafy vegetables or mangoes, papayas, vitamin A fruits |
8. Other fruits and vegetables | Any other fruits |
Selected Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Children characteristics | ||
Age (months) | ||
6–11 | 293 | 33.1 |
23–12 | 594 | 66.9 |
Child’s sex | ||
Male | 448 | 50.5 |
Female | 439 | 49.5 |
Birth Order | ||
1 | 186 | 21 |
2 | 179 | 20.2 |
3 | 151 | 17 |
4+ | 371 | 41.8 |
Mother characteristics | ||
Mother’s education | ||
No education | 250 | 28.2 |
Primary education | 166 | 18.7 |
Secondary | 437 | 49.3 |
Higher education | 34 | 3.8 |
Ethnicity a | ||
Akan | 426 | 48.1 |
Ga/dangme | 42 | 4.7 |
Ewe | 112 | 12.6 |
guan | 18 | 2.1 |
Mole-dagbani | 163 | 18.4 |
Grusi | 22 | 2.4 |
Gurma | 68 | 7.7 |
Mande | 13 | 1.5 |
Other | 23 | 2.5 |
Region b | ||
Western | 89 | 10 |
Central | 118 | 13.3 |
Greater Accra | 128 | 14.5 |
Volta | 65 | 7.3 |
Eastern | 79 | 8.9 |
Ashanti | 146 | 16.5 |
Bono-Ahafo | 92 | 10.3 |
Northern | 106 | 12 |
Upper east | 41 | 4.6 |
Upper west | 23 | 2.6 |
Religion | ||
Christianity | 669 | 75.5 |
Islamic | 163 | 18.4 |
African Traditionalist | 26 | 2.9 |
Other/no religion | 28 | 3.1 |
Household characteristics | ||
Wealth | ||
Poorest | 201 | 22.7 |
Poorer | 183 | 20.6 |
Middle | 173 | 19.5 |
Richer | 169 | 19 |
Richest | 161 | 18.2 |
Place of residence | ||
Rural | 414 | 46.7 |
Urban | 473 | 53.3 |
Selected Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage a |
---|---|---|
Specific food itemsb | ||
Juice | 110 | 12.5 |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 136 | 15.4 |
Fortified baby food | 139 | 15.7 |
Other liquids | 79 | 9 |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 717 | 80.9 |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 270 | 30.4 |
Eggs | 180 | 20.4 |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 61 | 7 |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 322 | 36.4 |
Fruits | 225 | 25.4 |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 119 | 13.4 |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 26 | 3 |
Fish, shellfish | 400 | 45.2 |
Beans, peas, lentils | 114 | 12.9 |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 320 | 36.1 |
Specific food groupsc | ||
Breast milk | 744 | 83.9 |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 784 | 88.6 |
Legumes and nuts | 114 | 12.9 |
Dairy products | 197 | 22.2 |
Flesh foods | 462 | 52.2 |
Eggs | 180 | 20.4 |
Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables | 106 | 12 |
Other fruits and vegetables | 419 | 47.3 |
Dietary diversity score—mean (CI 95%) | 3.39 (3.30–3.49) | |
Dietary diversity consumption (DDC) | ||
Adequate | 198 | 22.4 |
Inadequate | 687 | 77.6 |
Food Consumption 24 h Recall | Mother’s Education | Household Wealth | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Educ. (%) | Primary (%) | Secondary (%) | Higher (%) | Poorest (%) | Poorer (%) | Middle (%) | Richer (%) | Richest (%) | |
(95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |
Specific food items | |||||||||
Juice | 8.8 (5.6–12.0) | 9.3 (5.0–13.7) | 13.8 (10.3–17.4) | 37.2 (19.9–54.5) | 3.5 (1.4–5.6) | 10.6 (6.2–15.0) | 10.6 (5.8–15.4) | 15.1 (8.9–21.2) | 25.1 (17.0–33.2) |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 5.9 (3.3–8.5) | 11.3 (6.6–16.0) | 19.6 (15.5–23.6) | 50.3 (32.4–68.2) | 5.7 (3.0–8.4) | 9.6 (5.3–13.8) | 8.9 (4.5–13.3) | 21.8 (14.7–28.9) | 34.2 (25.4–43.0) |
Fortified baby food | 4.0 (1.8–6.1) | 6.6 (2.9–10.3) | 21.9 (17.6–26.1) | 66.2 (49.3–83.2) | 2.7 (0.8–4.5) | 4.8 (1.7–7.9) | 10.0 (5.3–14.6) | 25.0 (17.5–32.4) | 40.6 (31.5–50.0) |
Other liquids | 13.9 (10.0–17.8) | 10.0 (5.5–14.5) | 6.2 (3.8–8.7) | 2.6 (1.3–8.4) | 14.9 (10.8–18.9) | 6.1 (2.6–9.4) | 7.6 (3.5–11.7) | 11.0 (5.6–16.3) | 4.3 (0.51–8.1) |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 80.7 (76.3–85.0) | 82.1 (76.3–87.8) | 80.0 (75.9–84.1) | 87.6 (75.8–99.4) | 79.7 (75.1–84.3) | 77.2 (71.2–83.2) | 82.2 (76.3–88.2) | 81.0 (74.2–87.7) | 84.9 (78.3–91.6) |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 33.8 (28.5–39.0) | 30.0 (28.5–39.0) | 28.0 (23.3–32.6) | 39.8 (22.2–57.3) | 29.8 (24.6–35.1) | 37.1 (30.1–44.0) | 29.0 (22.0–36.1) | 20.9 (14.0–27.9) | 35.1 (26.2–44.0) |
Eggs | 12.8 (9.1–16.6) | 14.3 (9.1–19.5) | 24.0 (19.6–28.3) | 59.2 (41.6–76.8) | 6.2 (3.5–9.0) | 14.8 (9.7–19.8) | 21.5 (15.2–27.9) | 30.1 (22.2–38.0) | 33.0 (24.3–41.8) |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 4.4 (2.1–6.7) | 6.3 (2.6–10.0) | 7.0 (4.4–9.6) | 27.5 (11.5–43.5) | 3.8 (1.6–6.0) | 5.3 (2.1–8.5) | 3.7 (0.7–6.6) | 9.0 (4.1–13.9) | 13.9 (7.5–20.4) |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 42.8 (37.4–48.3) | 30.9 (23.9–37.8) | 34.7 (29.8–39.5) | 38.2 (20.8–55.6) | 39.8 (34.2–45.5) | 39.9 (32.9–46.9) | 32.5 (25.2–39.8) | 32.0 (24.0–40.0) | 36.9 (27.9–45.8) |
Fruits | 20.1 (15.7–24.6) | 22.2 (16.0–28.5) | 26.9 (22.3–31.4) | 59.8 (42.3–77.4) | 11.9 (8.2–15.6) | 20.8 (15.0–26.6) | 26.3 (19.5–33.1) | 34.7 (26.6–42.9) | 36.7 (27.7–45.7) |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 13.6 (9.8–17.4) | 9.8 (5.4–14.3) | 14.1 (10.5–17.6) | 21.3 (6.6–35.9) | 9.5 (6.1–12.9) | 11.7 (7.1–16.3) | 13.7 (8.4–19.0) | 15.9 (9.5–22.1) | 17.510.4–24.5) |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 2.6 (0.8–4.4) | 0.7 (0.5–2.0) | 2.9 (1.2–4.6) | 17.7 (4.0–31.4) | 1.1 (0.10–2.3) | 5.0 (1.8–8.1) | 2.1 (0.11–4.4) | 1.6 (0.54–3.8) | 5.3 (1.1–9.5) |
Fish, shellfish | 40.7 (35.2–46.1) | 42.9 (35.5–50.3) | 47.8 (42.7–52.9) | 56.4 (38.6–74.1) | 37.6 (32.0–43.1) | 42.6 (35.6–49.7) | 48.8 (41.0–56.6) | 51.6 (43.1–60.2) | 47.2 (37.9–56.5) |
Beans, peas, lentils | 15.5 (11.5–19.6) | 12.7 (7.7–17.7) | 11.2 (7.9–14.4) | 15.6 (2.6–28.6) | 15.7 (11.5–19.9) | 10.6 (6.9–15.0) | 5.6 (2.1–9.2) | 17.4 (10.9–23.9) | 15.0 (8.4–21.7) |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 34.9 (29.6–40.2) | 31.3 (24.4–38.3) | 38.7 (33.7–43.7) | 34.6 (17.6–51.7) | 35.0 (29.5–40.5) | 31.1 (24.4–37.7) | 32.5 (25.2–39.8) | 33.9 (25.8–42.0) | 49.3 (40.0–58.6) |
Food groups | |||||||||
Breast milk | 89.3 (85.9–92.8) | 82.6 (77.0–88.3) | 82.5 (78.6–88.3) | 69.1 (52.5–85.6) | 93.8 (91.0–96.6) | 85.5 (75.9–87.0) | 85.9 (80.5–91.3) | 77.8 (70.8–84.9) | 78.7 (71.0–86.3) |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 86.7 (82.9–90.4) | 89.1 (84.4–93.8) | 88.8 (85.5–92.0) | 97.2 (91.2–100) | 84.5 (80.3–88.6) | 83.8 (78.5–89.1) | 88.5 (83.6–93.5) | 93.1 (88.7–97.4) | 94.4 (90.1–98.7) |
Legumes and nuts | 15.5 (11.5–19.6) | 12.7 (7.7–17.7) | 11.2 (8.0–14.4) | 15.6 (2.6–28.6) | 15.7 (11.5–19.9) | 10.6 (6.2–15.50) | 5.6 (2.1–9.2) | 17.4 (10.9–23.9) | 15.0 (8.4–21.7) |
Dairy products | 11.3 (7.8–14.9) | 15.7 (10.2–21.1) | 27.8 (23.2–32.4) | 62.6 (45.2–80.0) | 6.3 (3.5–9.1) | 13.6 (8.7–18.6) | 13.5 (8.2–18.8) | 31.2 (23.3–39.2) | 52.1 (42.8–61.4) |
Flesh foods | 49.0 (43.7–54.6) | 45.7 (38.2–53.2) | 54.5 (49.4–59.6) | 76.8 (61.7–91.9) | 42.3 (36.6–48.0) | 50.1 (43.0–57.3) | 55.7 (48.0–63.4) | 58.5 (50.0–66.9) | 56.5 (47.3–65.7) |
Eggs | 12.8 (9.1–16.6) | 14.3 (9.1–19.5) | 24.0 (19.6–28.3) | 59.2 (41.6–76.8) | 6.2 (3.5–9.0) | 14.8 (9.7–19.8) | 21.5 (15.2–27.9) | 30.1 (22.2–38.0) | 33.0 (24.3–41.8) |
Vit. A-rich fruits and vegetables | 11.5 (7.9–15.0) | 10.4 (5.8–15.0) | 11.5 (8.2–14.8) | 30.2 (13.8–46.7) | 5.3 (2.7–7.8) | 13.2 (8.4–18.1) | 9.8 (5.2–14.4) | 16.0 (9.7–22.3) | 17.2 (10.1–24.2) |
Other fruits and vegetables | 49.8 (44.2–55.3) | 39.5 (32.2–46.8) | 46.8 (41.7–52.0) | 72.7 (56.7–88.6) | 43.6 (37.9–49.3) | 45.0 (37.8–52.1) | 41.7 (34.1–49.4) | 51.4 (42.8–59.9) | 56.2 (47.0–65.4) |
Adequate dietary diversity consumption (ADDC) | 18.8 (14.4–23.1) | 14.1 (8.9–19.3) | 24.2 (19.8–28.6) | 65.1 (48.1–82.2) | 12.8 (9.0–16.6) | 16.1 (10.9–22.4) | 16.9 (11.0–22.7) | 31.0 (23.1–38.9) | 38.3 (29.3–47.4) |
Mean dietary diversity score | 3.3 (3.1–3.4) | 3.1 (2.9–3.3) | 3.5 (3.3–3.6) | 4.8 (4.2–5.4) | 3.0 (2.8–3.1) | 3.1 (2.9–3.3) | 3.2 (3.0–3.4) | 3.8 (3.5–4.0) | 4.0 (3.7–4.3) |
Food Consumption 24 h Recall | Western | Central | Grt. Accra | Volta | Eastern | Ashanti | Bono-Ahafo | Northern | Upper East | Upper West |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |
Specific food items | ||||||||||
Juice | 19.4 (10.8–28.0) | 9.1 (3.4–14.8) | 27.3 (16.6–38.0) | 12.8 (4.6–21.1) | 11.2 (4.2–18.3) | 8.8 (2.6–15.1) | 14.4 (7.7–21.1) | 2.0 (0.3–4.4) | 3.0 (0.5–6.6) | 3.4 (0.7–7.6) |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 14.9 (7.1–22.7) | 29.5 (20.6–38.5) | 27.5 (16.8–38.2) | 2.9 (1.2–7.0) | 9.7 (3.1–16.3) | 12.8 (5.4–20.0) | 14.9 (8.1–21.7) | 7.7 (3.2–12.1) | 5.7 (0.9–10.7) | 2.0 (0.1.1–5.2) |
Fortified baby food | 22.5 (13.4–31.6) | 29.0 (20.1–37.9) | 22.4 (12.4–32.4) | 7.6 (1.1–14.2) | 11.5 (4.4–18.6) | 17.6 (9.2–25.9) | 10.1 (4.3–15.7) | 2.3 (−0.2–4.9) | 9.8 (3.6–16.0) | 3.1 (0.7–7.0) |
Other liquids | 8.8 (2.6–15.0) | 3.7 (0.0–7.4) | 11.5 (3.9–19.2) | 6.7 (0.5–12.8) | 10.5 (3.7–17.3) | 3.9 (−0.3–8.1) | 1.3 (−0.8–3.5) | 27.0 (19.5–34.5) | 5.1 (0.0–9.6) | 10.0 (3.2–16.7) |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 86.5 (79.1–94.0) | 82.7 (75.2–90.1) | 88.8 (81.2–96.3) | 82.5 (73.2–91.8) | 66.3 (55.8–76.8) | 73.5 (63.9–83.2) | 83.0 (75.8–90.1) | 81.6 (75.1–88.2) | 84.6 (77.1–92.1) | 79.7 (70.6–88.7) |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 44.3 (33.4–55.1) | 32.2 (23.1–41.4) | 40.2 (28.4–51.9) | 16.9 (7.7–26.1) | 20.9 (11.9–30.0) | 13.0 (5.6–20.3) | 47.1 (37.6–56.6) | 36.6 (28.4–44.7) | 12.1 (5.3–18.9) | 32.9 (22.3–43.5) |
Eggs | 37.7 (27.1–48.3) | 28.0 (19.2–36.8) | 28.0 (19.2–36.8) | 21.2 (11.1–31.2) | 14.7 (6.8–22.5) | 11.1 (4.2–18.1) | 15.4 (8.5–22.3) | 8.1 (3.5–12.7) | 4.3 (0.0–8.5) | 15.5 (7.4–23.7) |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 6.6 (1.1–12.0) | 11.0 (4.8–17.1) | 15.1 (6.5–23.7) | 2.4 (1.3–6.1) | 5.8 (0.6–10.9) | 2.2 (1.0–5.5) | 7.1 (2.2–12.0) | 3.7 (0.5–6.9) | 0.6 (−0.9–2.2) | 12.8 (5.3–20.3) |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 51.1 (40.2–62.0) | 25.8 (17.2–34.4) | 42.3 (30.4–54.1) | 42.7 (30.6–54.9) | 21.0 (11.9–30.0) | 26.7 (17.0–36.4) | 46.9 (37.4–56.5) | 31.3 (23.5–39.2) | 50.2 (39.8–60.6) | 53.6 (42.4–64.8) |
Any other fruits | 36.4 (25.9–46.9) | 37.8 (28.3–47.4) | 43.9 (32.0–55.8) | 15.7 (6.8–24.6) | 8.1 (2.0–14.1) | 9.7 (3.2–16.2) | 12.7 (6.4–19.1) | 13.1 (7.4–18.8) | 6.9 (1.6–12.1) | 9.1 (2.7–15.6) |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 10.1 (3.5–16.7) | 9.6 (3.8–15.4) | 29.8 (18.8–40.8) | 11.5 (3.719.3) | 5.5 (0.4–10.6) | 9.2 (2.8–15.5) | 14.6 (7.8–21.3) | 13.9 (8.1–19.8) | 13.0 (6.0–20.0) | 7.9 (1.8–13.9) |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 5.9 (0.8–11.1) | 2.0 (−0.7–4.7) | 2.5 (−1.2–6.2) | 3.3 (−1.1–7.6) | 1.1 (−1.2–3.3) | 1.8 (−1.1–4.7) | 5.1 (0.9–9.2) | 3.9 (0.6–7.2) | 1.8 (−1.0–4.6) | 1.2 (−1.2–3.7) |
Fish, shellfish | 44.3 (33.4–55.1) | 66.4 (57.1–75.7) | 58.7 (46.9–70.5) | 39.8 (27.8–518) | 30.3 (20.1–40.5) | 33.4 (23.1–43.8) | 57.0 (47.6–66.5) | 38.9 (30.6–47.1) | 19.3 (11.1–27.5) | 36.2 (25.4–47.1) |
Beans, peas, lentils | 8.7 (2.6–14.9) | 8.4 (3.0–14.0) | 28.4 (17.6–39.2) | 5.6 (0.0–11.2) | 9.4 (2.9–15.9) | 3.0 (0.7–6.8) | 13.6 (7.1–20.1) | 18.4 (11.8–24.9) | 15.7 (8.2–23.3) | 25.4 (15.6–35.2) |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 29.9 (19.9–39.9) | 15.4 (8.3–22.5) | 60.5 (48.8–72.3) | 13.0 (4.8–21.3) | 27.1 (17.2–37.0) | 38.8 (28.1–49.5) | 63.3 (54.1–72.5) | 38.6 (30.4–46.8) | 11.5 (4.8–18.1) | 30.1 (19.7–40.4) |
Food groups | ||||||||||
Breast milk | 73.5 (63.8–83.1) | 77.5 (69.3–85.6) | 77.9 (68.0–87.9) | 89.5 (82.0–97.0) | 76.3 (66.8–85.7) | 91.1 (84.9–98.7) | 83.1 (75.9–90.2) | 95.1 (91.4–98.7) | 91.0 (85.1–97.0) | 94.8 (89.9–100.0) |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 91.1 (84.9–97.3) | 93.8 (89.1–98.5) | 96.6 (92.3–100) | 90.9 (83.8–97.9) | 79.1 (70.1–88.2) | 82.6 (74.3–90.9) | 90.9 (85.5–96.4) | 83.6 (77.3–89.8) | 87.3 (80.4–94.2) | 87.0 (79.4–94.5) |
Legumes and nuts | 8.7 (2.6–14.9) | 8.5 (3.0–14.0) | 28.4 (17.6–39.2) | 5.6 (0.0–11.2) | 9.4 (2.9–15.9) | 3.0 (−0.7–6.8) | 13.6 (7.1–20.1) | 18.4 (11.8–24.9) | 15.7 (8.1–23.3) | 25.4 (15.6–35.2) |
Dairy products | 22.8 (13.6–31.9) | 33.0 (23.7–42.2) | 54.9 (43.0–66.9) | 5.1 (−0.2–10.6) | 18.3 (9.7–26.9) | 15.3 (7.4–23.2) | 16.6 (9.5–23.7) | 8.4 (3.7–13.1) | 6.3 (1.3–11.4) | 4.1 (−0.4–8.5) |
Flesh foods | 46.6 (35.8–57.5) | 72.0 (63.2–80.8) | 69.4 (58.4–80.5) | 49.3 (37.0–61.5) | 35.0 (24.4–45.6) | 40.3 (29.5–51.0) | 64.4 (55.2–73.5) | 46.2 (37.7–54.6) | 30.2 (20.6–39.7) | 38.6 (27.7–49.6) |
Eggs | 37.7 (27.1–48.3) | 28.0 (19.2–36.8) | 34.9 (23.4–46.3) | 21.1 (11.1–31.2) | 14.7 (6.8–22.5) | 11.1 (4.2–18.1) | 15.4 (8.5–22.3) | 8.1 (3.4–12.7) | 4.3 (0.8–8.5) | 15.5 (7.4–23.7) |
Vit. A-rich fruits and vegetables | 16.0 (8.0–24.0) | 17.2 (9.8–24.6) | 20.6 (10.9–30.3) | 8.7 (1.8–15.7) | 10.7 (3.8–17.5) | 6.0 (0.8–11.3) | 14.8 (8.1–21.6) | 5.1 (1.4–8.9) | 0.6 (−0.1–2.2) | 14.3 (6.3–22.1) |
Other fruits and vegetables | 61.4 (50.7–72.0) | 52.0 (42.2–61.8) | 67.2 (56.0–78.5) | 45.1 (32.9–57.3) | 25.7 (16.0–35.4) | 29.7 (19.7–39.7) | 52.4 (42.9–61.9) | 39.3 (31.1–47.6) | 53.4 (43.0–63.8) | 55.3 (44.1–66.5) |
Adequate dietary diversity consumption (ADDC) | 23.5 (14.3–32.8) | 33.2 (24.0–42.4) | 49.4 (37.4–61.4) | 14.6 (5.9–23.2) | 10.9 (4.0–17.8) | 6.7 (1.2–12.2) | 25.8 (17.5–34.1) | 13.8 (8.0–19.6) | 9.2 (3.2–15.3) | 22.1 (12.7–31.6) |
Mean Dietary diversity score | 3.6 (3.3–3.9) | 3.8 (3.6–4.1) | 4.5 (4.14.9) | 3.2 (2.9–3.4) | 2.7 (2.4–3.0) | 2.8 (2.5–3.1) | 3.5 (3.2–3.8) | 3.0 (2.8–3.3) | 2.9 (2.7–3.1) | 3.3 (3.0–3.6) |
Food Consumption 24 h Recall | Model A | Model B | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poorer OR (95%) | Middle OR (95%) | Richer (95% CI) | Richest (95% CI) | Poorer (95% CI) | Middle (95% CI) | Richer (95% CI) | Richest (95% CI) | |
Specific food items | ||||||||
Juice | 2.95 (1.28–6.85) | 3.97 (1.72–9.17) | 5.74 (2.53–13.00) | 12.27 (5.59–26.93) | 2.38 (0.95–5.95) | 2.62 (0.99–6.90) | 3.35 (1.16–9.70) | 5.46 (1.70–17.50) |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 1.50 (0.71–3.19) | 1.94 (0.92–4.08) | 5.24 (2.70–10.18) | 10.44 (5.45–19.98) | 0.98 (0.43–2.25) | 1.12 (0.46–2.69) | 2.87 (1.15–7.12) | 4.90 (1.76–13.68) |
Fortified baby food | 2.00 (0.77–5.19) | 4.41 (1.88–10.36) | 11.54 (5.12–26.00) | 24.00 (10.72–53.70) | 1.67 (0.59–4.70) | 3.69 (1.34–10.13) | 11.60 (3.93–34.21) | 21.18 (6.33–70.76) |
Other liquids | 0.53 (0.27–1.02) | 0.72 (0.38–1.37) | 0.71 (0.36–1.42) | 0.47 (0.20–1.09) | 0.79 (0.38–1.64) | 1.08 (0.48–2.42) | 1.25 (0.47–3.36) | 0.85 (0.24–3.00) |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 0.71 (0.45–1.13) | 1.08 (0.65–1.78) | 0.90 (0.53–1.53) | 1.14 (0.63–2.06) | 0.71 (0.42–1.19) | 1.14 (0.62–2.09) | 1.03 (0.51–2.09) | 1.49 (0.63–3.51) |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 1.28 (0.86–1.91) | 0.81 (0.52–1.26) | 0.54 (0.32–0.89) | 1.16 (0.72–1.86) | 1.31 (0.82–2.09) | 0.89 (0.50–1.55) | 0.52 (0.26–1.05) | 1.01 (0.47–2.17) |
Eggs | 2.58 (1.39–4.79) | 4.70 (2.57–8.60) | 4.43 (2.37–8.27) | 7.46 (4.02–13.83) | 2.39 (1.20–4.76) | 4.10 (1.10–8.58) | 2.36 (1.58–8.67) | 3.00 (1.96–13.06) |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 1.06 (0.46–2.42) | 1.22 (0.52–2.87) | 1.55 (0.67–3.56) | 3.42 (1.63–7.18) | 1.02 (0.40–2.61) | 1.33 (0.47–3.75) | 1.78 (0.54–5.86) | 4.02 (1.03–15.64) |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 1.01 (0.69–1.48) | 0.77 (0.51–1.16) | 0.78 (0.51–1.20) | 0.89 (0.57–1.41) | 1.05 (0.68–1.61) | 0.77 (0.47–1.28) | 0.80 (0.44–1.46) | 0.87 (0.43–1.75) |
Fruits | 2.00 (1.19–3.21) | 2.56 (1.54–4.26) | 3.05 (1.81–5.11) | 3.96 (2.34–6.73) | 1.88 (1.07–3.30) | 2.66 (1.42–5.02) | 3.54 (1.69–7.40) | 3.97 (1.70–9.29) |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 1.17 (0.66–2.07) | 1.16 (9.63–2.15) | 1.78 (0.98–3.20) | 1.83 (0.99–3.37) | 1.25 (0.65–2.39) | 1.08 (0.51–2.31) | 1.31 (0.55–3.08) | 1.25 (0.47–3.36) |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 4.07 (1.25–13.23) | 2.00 (0.49–8.17) | 2.29 (0.56–9.34) | 5.53 (1.62–18.85) | 3.78 (1.04–13.76) | 2.06 (0.41–10.29) | 2.17 (0.34–13.81) | 3.46 (0.45–26.64) |
Fish, shellfish | 1.33 (0.91–1.96) | 1.43 (0.96–2.16) | 1.41 (0.92–2.17) | 1.45 (0.92–2.28) | 1.13 (0.73–1.75) | 01.23 (0.74–2.04) | 1.18 (0.65–2.14) | 1.19 (0.59–2.40) |
Beans, peas, lentils | 0.73 (0.43–1.23) | 0.41 (0.21–0.80) | 0.87 (0.49–1.55) | 0.90 (0.50–1.63) | 0.72 (0.40–1.30) | 0.37 (0.17–0.82) | 0.71 (0.31–1.62) | 0.67 (0.25–1.75) |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 0.81 (0.55–1.21) | 0.81 (0.53–1.24) | 0.93 (0.60–1.44) | 1.77 (1.13–2.76) | 0.71 (0.45–1.12) | 0.61 (0.36–1.02) | 0.58 (0.31–1.08) | 1.11 (0.54–2.26) |
Food groups | ||||||||
Breast milk | 0.30 (0.16–0.55) | 0.28 (0.14–0.54) | 0.17 (0.09–0.33) | 0.18 (0.10–0.36) | 0.31 (0.15–0.65) | 0.26 (0.11–0.59) | 0.17 (0.07–43.5) | 0.20 (0.07–0.57) |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 0.73 (0.44–1.20) | 1.25 (0.70–2.21) | 1.61 (0.83–3.15) | 2.19 (1.00–4.88) | 0.66 (0.38–1.16) | 1.29 (0.65–2.57) | 1.90 (0.81–4.46) | 2.62 (0.91–7.53) |
Legumes and nuts | 0.73 (0.43–1.23) | 0.41 (0.21–0.80) | 0.87 (0.49–1.5) | 0.90 (0.50–1.63) | 0.72 (0.40–1.30) | 0.37 (0.17–0.82) | 0.70 (0.31–1.62) | 0.67 (0.25–1.75) |
Dairy products | 1.96 (1.00–3.84) | 2.62 (1.34–5.10) | 7.64 (4.14–14.09) | 18.04 (9.72–33.47) | 1.37 (0.65–2.88) | 1.59 (0.72–3.51) | 4.17 (1.82–9.57) | 8.00 (3.12–20.29) |
Flesh foods | 1.45 (0.98–2.13) | 1.60 (1.06–2.41) | 1.61 (1.04–2.49) | 1.88 (1.18–2.10) | 1.29 (0.83–2.00) | 1.31 (0.79–2.18) | 1.20 (0.66–2.18) | 1.26 (0.62–2.56) |
Eggs | 2.58 (1.39–4.79) | 4.70 (2.57–8.60) | 4.43 (2.37–8.27) | 7.45 (4.02–13.83) | 2.39 (1.20–4.76) | 4.10 (1.96–8.58) | 3.71 (1.58–8.8.67) | 5.06 (1.96–13.06) |
Vit. A-rich fruits and vegetables | 1.94 (1.03–3.65) | 1.90 (0.97–3.74) | 2.51 (1.29–4.87) | 3.42 (1.77–6.60) | 1.94 (0.94–4.02) | 2.05 (0.89–4.71) | 2.70 (1.05–6.98) | 3.59 (1.11–10.78) |
Other fruits and vegetables | 1.10 (0.76–1.61) | 1.04 (0.69–1.55) | 1.12 (0.73–1.71) | 1.50 (0.95–2.35) | 1.17 (0.76–1.80) | 1.08 (0.66–1.77) | 1.26 (0.70–2.27) | 1.51 (0.75–3.03) |
Adequate dietary diversity consumption (ADDC) | 1.25 (0.75–2.07) | 1.46 (0.86–2.48) | 1.97 (1.17–3.32) | 3.49 (2.08–5.85) | 1.13 (0.64–2.00) | 1.31 (0.69–2.49) | 1.67 (0.80–3.51) | 2.53 (1.09–5.90) |
Food Consumption 24 h Recall | Model A | Model B | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary OR (95% CI) | Secondary OR (95% CI) | Higher OR (95% CI) | Primary OR (95% CI) | Secondary OR (95% CI) | Higher OR (95% CI) | |
Specific food items | ||||||
Juice | 0.97 (0.44–2.13) | 2.72 (1.57–4.71) | 7.54 (3.09–18.41) | 0.52 (0.22–1.26) | 1.00 (0.47–2.06) | 2.07 (0.66–6.50) |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 2.17 (1.08–4.38) | 4.24 (2.40–7.49) | 10.45 (4.27–25.56) | 1.43 (0.66–3.12) | 1.61 (0.77–3.36) | 2.22 (0.73–6.78) |
Fortified baby food | 2.17 (0.98–4.82) | 6.00 (3.18–11.31) | 27.34 (10.87–68.78) | 1.43 (0.60–3.46) | 2.07 (0.93–4.61) | 4.93 (1.60–15.17) |
Other liquids | 1.07 (0.60–1.93) | 0.60 (0.35–1.03) | 1.19 (0.39–3.63) | 1.97 (1.00–3.86) | 1.27 (0.61–2.65) | 2.81 (0.68–11.67) |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 0.92 (0.58–1.49) | 0.99 (0.67–1.45) | 0.65 (0.27–1.58) | 0.91 (0.54–1.56) | 0.83 (0.49–1.41) | 0.66 (0.17–1.39) |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 0.85 (0.56–1.29) | 0.93 (0.66–1.30) | 0.99 (0.44–2.23) | 0.81 (0.49–1.33) | 0.86 (0.53–1.40) | 1.09 (0.40–3.00) |
Eggs | 1.04 (0.57–1.89) | 2.57 (1.67–3.98) | 5.47 (2.40–12.47) | 0.68 (0.35–1.34) | 1.18 (0.65–2.14) | 1.95 (0.70–5.42) |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 2.10 (1.00–4.37) | 1.36 (0.70–2.67) | 6.20 (2.26–16.98) | 1.85 (0.80–4.27) | 0.93 (0.37–2.33) | 3.06 (0.76–12.37) |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 0.60 (0.41–0.90) | 0.88 (0.65–1.21) | 0.83 (0.38–1.79) | 0.62 (0.40–0.98) | 1.09 (0.71–1.69) | 1.11 (0.45–2.75) |
fruits | 1.40 (0.85–2.29) | 2.23 (1.51–3.29) | 4.16 (1.87–9.24) | 1.00 (0.57–1.75) | 1.26 (0.74–2.14) | 2.00 (0.78–5.54) |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 0.91 (0.51–1.65) | 1.34 (0.86–2.11) | 1.68 (0.64–4.44) | 1.09 (0.56–2.13) | 1.55 (0.81–2.96) | 1.85 (0.55–6.22) |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 0.79 (0.29–3.10) | 1.78 (0.71–4.47) | 10.75 (3.30–35.00) | 0.54 (0.12–2.39) | 1.42 (0.40–5.09) | 12.46 (1.94–80.01) |
Fish, shellfish | 1.10 (0.75–1.64) | 1.49 (1.08–2.05) | 0.98 (0.45–2.13) | 0.98 (0.32–2.08) | 1.18 (0.76–1.83) | 0.82 (0.32–2.08) |
Beans, peas, lentils | 0.98 (0.57–1.66) | 0.89 (0.57–1.37) | 0.81 (0.27–2.45) | 1.29 (0.70–2.36) | 1.22 (0.66–2.26) | 1.16 (0.31–4.34) |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 0.86 (0.58–1.29) | 1.21 (0.88–1.66) | 0.65 (0.28–1.52) | 0.83 (0.53–1.33) | 0.92 (0.58–1.45) | 0.36 (0.13–0.98) |
Food groups | ||||||
Breast milk | 0.56 (0.31–0.99) | 0.43 (0.27–0.69) | 0.18 (0.07–0.43) | 1.14 (0.58–2.27) | 1.33 (0.69–2.55) | 0.68 (0.21–2.15) |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 1.09 (0.63–1.88) | 1.20 (0.77–1.88) | 1.53 (0.44–5.34) | 0.93 (0.51–1.72) | 0.78 (0.42–1.45) | 0.85 (0.20–3.56) |
Legumes and nuts | 0.98 (0.58–1.66) | 0.89 (0.57–1.37) | 0.81 (0.27–2.45) | 1.29 (0.70–2.36) | 1.22 (0.66–2.26) | 1.15 (0.31–4.34) |
Dairy products | 1.97 (1.08–3.59) | 4.29 (2.66–6.92) | 11.84 (5.20–26.96) | 1.25 (0.63–2.49) | 1.46 (0.77–2.77) | 2.26 (0.81–6.27) |
Flesh foods | 0.98 (0.66–1.46) | 1.52 (1.11–2.09) | 1.90 (0.86–4.20) | 0.85 (0.55–1.33) | 1.14 (0.73–1.78) | 1.44 (0.56–3.69) |
Eggs | 1.04 (0.57–1.89) | 2.57 (1.67–3.98) | 5.47 (2.40–12.47) | 0.68 (0.35–1.34) | 1.18 (0.65–2.14) | 1.95 (0.70–5.42) |
Vit. A-rich fruits and vegetables | 1.42 (0.79–2.55) | 1.28 (0.78–2.11) | 3.42 (1.39–8.45) | 0.92 (0.47–1.82) | 0.68 (0.34–1.35) | 1.65 (0.51–5.34) |
Other fruits and vegetables | 0.67 (0.45–0.98) | 1.10 (0.81–1.50) | 1.74 (0.80–3.79) | 0.64 (0.41–1.00) | 1.07 (0.70–1.65) | 1.62 (0.65–4.02) |
Adequate dietary diversity consumption (ADDC) | 0.94 (0.56–1.58) | 1.63 (1.10–2.41) | 3.52 (1.58–7.85) | 0.84 (0.47–1.52) | 1.21 (0.70–2.10) | 2.18 (0.80–5.92) |
Food Consumption 24 h Recall | Western | Central | Grt. Accra | Volta | Eastern | Ashanti | Bono–Ahafo | Northern | Upper East | Upper West |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | (SE) | |
Specific food items | ||||||||||
Juice | 0.18 (0.042) | 0.14 (0.039) | 0.18 (0.047) | 0.14 (0.059) | 0.10 (0.033) | 0.07 (0.026) | 0.13 (0.034) | 0.04 (0.019) | 0.06 (0.037) | 0.05 (0.029) |
Tinned powdered/fresh milk | 0.12 (0.033) | 0.21 (0.041) | 0.13 (0.031) | 0.03 (0.025) | 0.07 (0.235) | 0.11 (0.0293) | 0.18 (0.037) | 0.18 (0.057) | 0.16 (0.061) | 0.04 (0.032) |
Fortified baby food | 0.18 (0.037) | 0.19 (0.036) | 0.13 (0.030) | 0.16 (0.059) | 0.11 (0.031) | 0.10 (0.024) | 0.15 (0.034) | 0.04 (0.026) | 0.17 (0.057) | 0.05 (0.029) |
Other liquids | 0.10 (0.037) | 0.08 (0.037) | 0.17 (0.066) | 0.12 (0.058) | 0.12 (0.049) | 0.05 (0.027) | 0.02 (0.013) | 0.18 (0.041) | 0.04 (0.019) | 0.09 (0.030) |
Bread, noodles, other grains | 0.82 (0.044) | 0.82 (0.044) | 0.80 (0.061) | 0.78 (0.067) | 0.63 (0.062) | 0.73 (0.052) | 0.79 (0.040) | 0.84 (0.038) | 0.84 (0.042) | 0.82 (0.047) |
Potatoes, cassava, tubers | 0.43 (0.054) | 0.40 (0.054) | 0.42 (0.068) | 0.16 (0.051) | 0.20 (0.047) | 0.16 (0.043) | 0.45 (0.046) | 0.30 (0.053) | 0.15 (0.044) | 0.24 (0.556) |
Eggs | 0.33 (0.050) | 0.19 (0.040) | 0.23 (0.051) | 0.19 (0.059) | 0.12 (0.037) | 0.10 (0.030) | 0.13 (0.033) | 0.11 (0.039) | 0.12 (0.050) | 0.17 (0.058) |
Pumpkin, carrot, squash | 0.08 (0.035) | 0.17 (0.053) | 0.14 (0.047) | 0.02 (0.016) | 0.04 (0.023) | 0.04 (0.028) | 0.11 (0.035) | 0.08 (0.041) | 0.01 (0.012) | 0.13 (0.048) |
Dark green leafy vegetables | 0.51 (0.057) | 0.41 (0.057) | 0.46 (0.070) | 0.41 (0.079) | 0.27 (0.056) | 0.31 (0.056) | 0.46 (0.049) | 0.28 (0.050) | 0.40 (0.062) | 0.470 (0.067) |
fruits | 0.32 (0.052) | 0.33 (0.056) | 0.36 (0.066) | 0.11 (0.041) | 0.08 (0.030) | 0.12 (0.038) | 0.17 (0.038) | 0.17 (0.046) | 0.10 (0.039) | 0.12 (0.044) |
Meat (chicken, beef) | 0.08 (0.030) | 0.14 (0.040) | 0.23 (0.058) | 0.15 (0.059) | 0.07 (0.033) | 0.08 (0.030) | 0.18 (0.038) | 0.13 (0.035) | 0.17 (0.050) | 0.11 (0.042) |
Liver, heart, other organ meat | 0.08 (0.030) | 0.03 (0.018) | 0.01 (0.011) | 0.03 (0.025) | 0.01 (0.008) | 0.02 (0.017) | 0.08 (0.030) | 0.10 (0.052) | 0.07 (0.052) | 0.05 (0.037) |
Fish, shellfish | 0.45 (0.055) | 0.65 (0.052) | 0.60 (0.066) | 0.36 (0.074) | 0.34 (0.058) | 0.37 (0.057) | 0.53 (0.047) | 0.40 (0.057) | 0.21 (0.049) | 0.27 (0.056) |
Beans, peas, lentils | 0.10 (0.033) | 0.12 (0.035) | 0.23 (0.058) | 0.03 (0.014) | 0.08 (0.027) | 0.05 (0.028) | 0.13 (0.034) | 0.23 (0.061) | 0.26 (0.071) | 0.30 (0.075) |
Other solid/semi-liquid food | 0.31 (0.053) | 0.22 (0.045) | 0.53 (0.072) | 0.14 (0.049) | 0.26 (0.053) | 0.43 (0.059) | 0.61 (0.047) | 0.39 (0.060) | 0.13 (0.045) | 0.36 (0.069) |
Food groups | ||||||||||
Breast milk | 0.75 (0.042) | 0.82 (0.036) | 0.87 (0.036) | 0.89 (0.045) | 0.80 (0.044) | 0.89 (0.032) | 0.86 (0.032) | 0.91 (0.039) | 0.82 (0.061) | 0.85 (0.056) |
Grains, roots, and tubers | 0.89 (0.036) | 0.91 (0.032) | 0.92 (0.044) | 0.88 (0.052) | 0.76 (0.060) | 0.83 (0.045) | 0.90 (0.029) | 0.86 (0.038) | 0.87 (0.040) | 0.83 (0.048) |
Legumes and nuts | 0.10 (0.033) | 0.12 (0.035) | 0.23 (0.058) | 0.03 (0.014) | 0.09 (0.027) | 0.05 (0.028) | 0.13 (0.034) | 0.23 (0.061) | 0.26 (0.071) | 0.30 (0.075) |
Dairy products | 0.20 (0.039) | 0.25 (0.042) | 0.27 (0.050) | 0.08 (0.039) | 0.13 (0.035) | 0.13 (0.033) | 0.13 (0.030) | 0.18 (0.051) | 0.20 (0.064) | 0.09 (0.045) |
Flesh foods | 0.47 (0.054) | 0.74 (0.046) | 0.67 (0.063) | 0.46 (0.077) | 0.40 (0.060) | 0.44 (0.056) | 0.63 (0.045) | 0.47 (0.057) | 0.32 (0.058) | 0.30 (0.057) |
Eggs | 0.33 (0.050) | 0.19 (0.043) | 0.23 (0.051) | 0.19 (0.059) | 0.12 (0.037) | 0.10 (0.030) | 0.13 (0.033) | 0.11 (0.039) | 0.12 (0.050) | 0.17 (0.058) |
Vit. A-rich fruits and vegetables | 0.16 (0.042) | 0.25 (0.054) | 0.22 (0.059) | 0.06 (0.032) | 0.10 (0.038) | 0.09 (0.037) | 0.21 (0.042) | 0.10 (0.040) | 0.01 (0.010) | 0.12 (0.039) |
Other fruits and vegetables | 0.60 (0.055) | 0.55 (0.056) | 0.65 (0.066) | 0.43 (0.078) | 0.31 (0.058) | 0.34 (0.056) | 0.53 (0.048) | 0.38 (0.055) | 0.48 (0.064) | 0.51 (0.067) |
Adequate dietary diversity consumption (ADDC) | 0.23 (0.047) | 0.32 (0.056) | 0.43 (0.074) | 0.10 (0.040) | 0.11 (0.036) | 0.08 (0.033) | 0.30 (0.047) | 0.14 (0.040) | 0.14 (0.046) | 0.18 (0.051) |
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Anane, I.; Nie, F.; Huang, J. Socioeconomic and Geographic Pattern of Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity among Children Aged 6–23 Months Old in Ghana. Nutrients 2021, 13, 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020603
Anane I, Nie F, Huang J. Socioeconomic and Geographic Pattern of Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity among Children Aged 6–23 Months Old in Ghana. Nutrients. 2021; 13(2):603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020603
Chicago/Turabian StyleAnane, Isaac, Fengying Nie, and Jiaqi Huang. 2021. "Socioeconomic and Geographic Pattern of Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity among Children Aged 6–23 Months Old in Ghana" Nutrients 13, no. 2: 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020603
APA StyleAnane, I., Nie, F., & Huang, J. (2021). Socioeconomic and Geographic Pattern of Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity among Children Aged 6–23 Months Old in Ghana. Nutrients, 13(2), 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020603