Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking—Obesity Hypothesis
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Sensory Measures
2.3. Anthropometric Measures
2.4. Demographic, Lifestyle, Behavioural, and Dietary Characteristics
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Identification of Distinct Sweet-Liking Phenotypes
3.2. Effect of Phenotype and Country on Participant Characteristics
3.2.1. Demographics
3.2.2. Anthropometry
3.2.3. Behaviour, Lifestyle, and Diet
4. Discussion
4.1. General Findings
4.2. What Do Sweet-Liking Patterns Can Tell Us about Individual Variation in Anthropometry?
4.3. The Obesogenic Environment Approach
4.4. The Alliesthesia and Hedonic (Non-Homeostatic) Approach
4.5. Strength and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- WHO. Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight (accessed on 20 August 2019).
- Spiegelman, B.M.; Flier, J.S. Obesity and the regulation of energy balance. Cell 2001, 104, 531–543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swinburn, B.A.; Sacks, G.; Hall, K.D.; McPherson, K.; Finegood, D.T.; Moodie, M.L.; Gortmaker, S.L. The global obesity pandemic: Shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 2011, 378, 804–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mela, D.J. Food choice and intake: The human factor. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1999, 58, 513–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clark, J.E. Taste and flavour: Their importance in food choice and acceptance. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1998, 57, 639–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boesveldt, S.; Bobowski, N.; McCrickerd, K.; Maître, I.; Sulmont-Rossé, C.; Forde, C.G. The changing role of the senses in food choice and food intake across the lifespan. Food Qual. Prefer. 2018, 68, 80–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, J.E. Measuring sensory perception in relation to consumer behavior. In Rapid Sensory Profiling Techniques; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 53–69. ISBN 9781782422488. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, J.E. Influence of Sensation and Liking on Eating and Drinking. In Handbook of Eating and Drinking: Interdisciplinary Perspectives; Meiselman, H.L., Ed.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 1–25. [Google Scholar]
- Besnard, P. Lipids and obesity: Also a matter of taste? Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 2016, 17, 159–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiss, D.A.; Avena, N.; Rada, P. Sugar Addiction: From Evolution to Revolution. Front. Psychiatry 2018, 9, 545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wise, R.A. Role of brain dopamine in food reward and reinforcement. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2006, 361, 1149–1158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finlayson, G.; Dalton, M. Hedonics of Food Consumption: Are Food ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ Viable Targets for Appetite Control in the Obese? Curr. Obes. Rep. 2012, 1, 42–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olszewski, P.K.; Wood, E.L.; Klockars, A.; Levine, A.S. Excessive Consumption of Sugar: An Insatiable Drive for Reward. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2019, 8, 120–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eikemo, M.; Løseth, G.E.; Johnstone, T.; Gjerstad, J.; Willoch, F.; Leknes, S. Sweet taste pleasantness is modulated by morphine and naltrexone. Psychopharmacology 2016, 233, 3711–3723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeomans, M.R.; Gray, R.W. Selective effects of naltrexone on food pleasantness and intake. Physiol. Behav. 1996, 60, 439–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berridge, K.C.; Ho, C.Y.; Richard, J.M.; Difeliceantonio, A.G. The tempted brain eats: Pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders. Brain Res. 2010, 1350, 43–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berridge, K.C.; Kringelbach, M.L. Neuroscience of affect: Brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2013, 23, 294–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sclafani, A. From appetite setpoint to appetition: 50 years of ingestive behavior research. Physiol. Behav. 2018, 192, 210–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shechter, A.; Schwartz, G.J. Gut–brain nutrient sensing in food reward. Appetite 2018, 122, 32–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newens, K.J.; Walton, J. A review of sugar consumption from nationally representative dietary surveys across the world. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 2016, 29, 225–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tan, S.Y.; Tucker, R.M. Sweet taste as a predictor of dietary intake: A systematic review. Nutrients 2019, 11, 94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popkin, B.M.; Nielsen, S.J. The sweetening of the world’s diet. Obes. Res. 2003, 11, 1325–1332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO Healthy Diet (Fact Sheet N°394). Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs394/en/ (accessed on 6 December 2019).
- Welsh, J.A.; Sharma, A.J.; Grellinger, L.; Vos, M.B. Consumption of added sugars is decreasing in the United States. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 94, 726–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brand-Miller, J.C.; Barclay, A.W. Declining consumption of added sugars and sugar-sweetened beverages in Australia: A challenge for obesity prevention. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 105, 854–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prinz, P. The role of dietary sugars in health: Molecular composition or just calories? Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mattes, R.D. Beverages and positive energy balance: The menace is the medium. Int. J. Obes. 2006, 30, S60–S65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Te Morenga, L.A.; Mallard, S.; Mann, J. Dietary sugars and body weight: Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. BMJ Br. Med. J. 2013, 346, e7492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Asao, K.; Miller, J.; Arcori, L.; Lumeng, J.; Han-Markey, T.; Herman, W. Patterns of Sweet Taste Liking: A Pilot Study. Nutrients 2015, 7, 7298–7311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drewnowski, A.; Henderson, S.A.; Shore, A.B.; Barratt-Fornell, A. Nontasters, Tasters, and Supertasters of 6-n-Propylthiouracil (PROP) and Hedonic Response to Sweet. Physiol. Behav. 1997, 62, 649–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garneau, N.L.; Nuessle, T.M.; Mendelsberg, B.J.; Shepard, S.; Tucker, R.M. Sweet liker status in children and adults: Consequences for beverage intake in adults. Food Qual. Prefer. 2018, 65, 175–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodman, E.L.; Breithaupt, L.; Watson, H.J.; Peat, C.M.; Baker, J.H.; Bulik, C.M.; Brownley, K.A. Sweet taste preference in binge-eating disorder: A preliminary investigation. Eat. Behav. 2018, 28, 8–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Methven, L.; Xiao, C.; Cai, M.; Prescott, J. Rejection thresholds (RjT) of sweet likers and dislikers. Food Qual. Prefer. 2016, 52, 74–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner-McGrievy, G.; Tate, D.F.; Moore, D.; Popkin, B. Taking the Bitter with the Sweet: Relationship of Supertasting and Sweet Preference with Metabolic Syndrome and Dietary Intake. J. Food Sci. 2013, 78, S336–S342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weafer, J.; Lyon, N.; Hedeker, D.; de Wit, H. Sweet taste liking is associated with subjective response to amphetamine in women but not men. Psychopharmacology 2017, 234, 3185–3194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yeomans, M.R.; Prescott, J. Smelling the goodness: Sniffing as a behavioral measure of learned odor hedonics. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Learn. Cogn. 2016, 42, 391–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yeomans, M.R.; Tepper, B.J.; Rietzschel, J.; Prescott, J. Human hedonic responses to sweetness: Role of taste genetics and anatomy. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 91, 264–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grinker, J.A. Effects of metabolic state on taste parameters and intake: Comparisons of human and animal obesity. In Taste and Development: The Genesis of Sweet Preference; Weiffenbach, J.M., Ed.; US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health: Washington, DC, USA, 1977; pp. 309–327. [Google Scholar]
- Grinker, J.A.; Hirsch, J. Metabolic and behavioural correlates of obesity. Ciba Found. Symp. 1972, 8, 349–369. [Google Scholar]
- Johnson, W.G.; Keane, T.M.; Bonar, J.R.; Downey, C. Hedonic ratings of sucrose solutions: Effects of body weight, weight loss and dietary restriction. Addict. Behav. 1979, 4, 231–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malcolm, R.; O’Neil, P.M.; Hirsch, A.A.; Currey, H.S.; Moskowitz, G. Taste hedonics and thresholds in obesity. Int. J. Obes. 1980, 4, 203–212. [Google Scholar]
- Thai, P.-K.; Tan, E.-C.; Tan, W.-L.; Tey, T.-H.; Kaur, H.; Say, Y.-H. Sweetness intensity perception and pleasantness ratings of sucrose, aspartame solutions and cola among multi-ethnic Malaysian subjects. Food Qual. Prefer. 2011, 22, 281–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, D.A.; Moskowitz, H.R.; Campbell, R.G. Effects of body weight and food intake on pleasantness ratings for a sweet stimulus. J. Appl. Physiol. 1976, 41, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iatridi, V.; Hayes, J.E.; Yeomans, M.R. Quantifying sweet taste liker phenotypes: Time for some consistency in the classification criteria. Nutrients 2019, 11, 129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Q.; Kraft, M.; Shen, Y.; MacFie, H.; Ford, R. Sweet Liking Status and PROP Taster Status impact emotional response to sweetened beverage. Food Qual. Prefer. 2019, 75, 133–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.-Y.; Prescott, J.; Kim, K.-O. Emotional responses to sweet foods according to sweet liker status. Food Qual. Prefer. 2017, 59, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iatridi, V.; Hayes, J.E.; Yeomans, M.R. Reconsidering the classification of sweet taste liker phenotypes: A methodological review. Food Qual. Prefer. 2019, 72, 56–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okorodudu, D.O.; Jumean, M.F.; Montori, V.M.; Romero-Corral, A.; Somers, V.K.; Erwin, P.J.; Lopez-Jimenez, F. Diagnostic performance of body mass index to identify obesity as defined by body adiposity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Obes. 2010, 34, 791–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Drewnowski, A.; Schwartz, M. Invisible fats: Sensory assessment of sugar/fat mixtures. Appetite 1990, 14, 203–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holt, S.H.A.; Cobiac, L.; Beaumont-Smith, N.E.; Easton, K.; Best, D.J. Dietary habits and the perception and liking of sweetness among Australian and Malaysian students: A cross-cultural study. Food Qual. Prefer. 2000, 11, 299–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.-Y.; Prescott, J.; Kim, K.-O. Patterns of sweet liking in sucrose solutions and beverages. Food Qual. Prefer. 2014, 36, 96–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blüher, M. Obesity: Global epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2019, 15, 288–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switcherland, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- WHO. Waist Circumference and Waist-Hip Ratio: Report of a WHO Expert Consultation; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Kyle, U.G.; Bosaeus, I.; De Lorenzo, A.D.; Deurenberg, P.; Elia, M.; Manuel Gómez, J.; Lilienthal Heitmann, B.; Kent-Smith, L.; Melchior, J.-C.; Pirlich, M.; et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis—Part II: Utilization in clinical practice. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 23, 1430–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, C.L.; Marshall, A.L.; Sjöström, M.; Bauman, A.E.; Booth, M.L.; Ainsworth, B.E.; Pratt, M.; Ekelund, U.; Yngve, A.; Sallis, J.F.; et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-Country reliability and validity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2003, 35, 1381–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patterson, E. Guidelines for Data Processing and Analysis of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Available online: https://www.physio-pedia.com/images/c/c7/Quidelines_for_interpreting_the_IPAQ.pdF (accessed on 31 January 2020).
- Stunkard, A.J.; Messick, S. The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger. J. Psychosom. Res. 1985, 29, 71–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patton, J.H.; Stanford, M.; Barratt, E.S. Factor structure of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. J. Clin. Psychol. 1995, 51, 768–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Connor, R.M.; Colder, C.R.; Hawk, L.W. Confirmatory factor analysis of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire. Pers. Individ. Dif. 2004, 37, 985–1002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torrubia, R.; Ávila, C.; Moltó, J.; Caseras, X. The Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) as a measure of Gray’s anxiety and impulsivity dimensions. Pers. Individ. Dif. 2001, 31, 837–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnett, J. Sensation seeking: A new conceptualization and a new scale. Pers. Individ. Dif. 1994, 16, 289–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zuckerman, M.; Kolin, E.A.; Price, L.; Zoob, I. Development of a sensation-seeking scale. J. Consult. Psychol. 1964, 28, 477–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bingham, S.A.; Welch, A.A.; McTaggart, A.; Mulligan, A.A.; Runswick, S.A.; Luben, R.; Oakes, S.; Khaw, K.T.; Wareham, N.; Day, N.E. Nutritional methods in the European Prospective Investigation of Cancer in Norfolk. Public Health Nutr. 2001, 4, 847–858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hedrick, V.E.; Savla, J.; Comber, D.L.; Flack, K.D.; Estabrooks, P.A.; Nsiah-Kumi, P.A.; Ortmeier, S.; Davy, B.M. Development of a Brief Questionnaire to Assess Habitual Beverage Intake (BEVQ-15): Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Total Beverage Energy Intake. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2012, 112, 840–849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yim, O.; Ramdeen, K.T. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis: Comparison of Three Linkage Measures and Application to Psychological Data. Quant. Methods Psychol. 2015, 11, 8–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byrnes, N.K.; Hayes, J.E. Personality factors predict spicy food liking and intake. Food Qual. Prefer. 2013, 28, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ravussin, E.; Lillioja, S.; Anderson, T.E.; Christin, L.; Bogardus, C. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. Methods and results using a respiratory chamber. J. Clin. Investig. 1986, 78, 1568–1578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stubbs, R.J.; Hopkins, M.; Finlayson, G.S.; Duarte, C.; Gibbons, C.; Blundell, J.E. Potential effects of fat mass and fat-free mass on energy intake in different states of energy balance. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 72, 698–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blundell, J.E.; Caudwell, P.; Gibbons, C.; Hopkins, M.; Näslund, E.; King, N.A.; Finlayson, G. Body composition and appetite: Fat-free mass (but not fat mass or BMI) is positively associated with self-determined meal size and daily energy intake in humans. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 107, 445–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Henry, C.J.; Ponnalagu, S.; Bi, X.; Forde, C. Does basal metabolic rate drive eating rate? Physiol. Behav. 2018, 189, 74–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weise, C.M.; Thiyyagura, P.; Reiman, E.M.; Chen, K.; Krakoff, J. Fat-free body mass but not fat mass is associated with reduced gray matter volume of cortical brain regions implicated in autonomic and homeostatic regulation. Neuroimage 2013, 64, 712–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dulloo, A.G.; Miles-Chan, J.L.; Schutz, Y. Collateral fattening in body composition autoregulation: Its determinants and significance for obesity predisposition. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 72, 657–664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feeney, E.L.; Leacy, L.; O’kelly, M.; Leacy, N.; Phelan, A.; Crowley, L.; Stynes, E.; de Casanove, A.; Horner, K. Sweet and umami taste perception differs with habitual exercise in males. Nutrients 2019, 11, 155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bredella, M.A. Sex Differences in Body Composition. In Sex and Gender Factors Affecting Metabolic Homeostasis, Diabetes and Obesity; Mauvais-Jarvis, F., Ed.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 9–27. [Google Scholar]
- St-Onge, M.P. Relationship between body composition changes and changes in physical function and metabolic risk factors in aging. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2005, 8, 523–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Deglaire, A.; Méjean, C.; Castetbon, K.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Hercberg, S.; Schlich, P. Associations between weight status and liking scores for sweet, salt and fat according to the gender in adults (The Nutrinet-Santé study). Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015, 69, 40–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bryant, E.J.; Rehman, J.; Pepper, L.B.; Walters, E.R. Obesity and Eating Disturbance: The Role of TFEQ Restraint and Disinhibition. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2019, 8, 363–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pietiläinen, K.H.; Saarni, S.E.; Kaprio, J.; Rissanen, A. Does dieting make you fat A twin study. Int. J. Obes. 2012, 36, 456–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lowe, M.R. Dieting: Proxy or cause of future weight gain? Obes. Rev. 2015, 16, 19–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grandner, M.A. The Cost of Sleep Lost: Implications for Health, Performance, and the Bottom Line. Am. J. Health Promot. 2018, 32, 1629–1634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dhurandhar, E.J. True, true, unrelated? A review of recent evidence for a causal influence of breakfast on obesity. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2016, 23, 384–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, X.; Qi, L. Gene–environment interactions on body fat distribution. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- WHO. World Health Organization Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Available online: http://gamapserver.who.int/gho/interactive_charts/ncd/risk_factors/overweight/atlas.html (accessed on 18 January 2020).
- Llewellyn, C.H. Genetic susceptibility to the “obesogenic” environment: The role of eating behavior in obesity and an appetite for change. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 108, 429–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roberti, J.W. A review of behavioral and biological correlates of sensation seeking. J. Res. Pers. 2004, 38, 256–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byrnes, N.K.; Hayes, J.E. Behavioral measures of risk tasking, sensation seeking and sensitivity to reward may reflect different motivations for spicy food liking and consumption. Appetite 2016, 103, 411–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabanac, M. Sensory Pleasure. Q. Rev. Biol. 1979, 54, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coldwell, S.E.; Oswald, T.K.; Reed, D.R. A marker of growth differs between adolescents with high vs. low sugar preference. Physiol. Behav. 2009, 96, 574–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mennella, J.A.; Finkbeiner, S.; Lipchock, S.V.; Hwang, L.-D.; Reed, D.R. Preferences for Salty and Sweet Tastes Are Elevated and Related to Each Other during Childhood. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e92201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sample, C.H.; Jones, S.; Hargrave, S.L.; Jarrard, L.E.; Davidson, T.L. Western diet and the weakening of the interoceptive stimulus control of appetitive behavior. Behav. Brain Res. 2016, 312, 219–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bilman, E.; van Kleef, E.; van Trijp, H. External cues challenging the internal appetite control system—Overview and practical implications. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 57, 2825–2834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lowe, M.R.; Butryn, M.L. Hedonic hunger: A new dimension of appetite? Physiol. Behav. 2007, 91, 432–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Espel-Huynh, H.M.; Muratore, A.F.; Lowe, M.R. A narrative review of the construct of hedonic hunger and its measurement by the Power of Food Scale. Obes. Sci. Pract. 2018, 4, 238–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
<21 Years | ≥21 Years | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F | df | p | ηp2 | n | F | df | p | ηp2 | n | |
log10 BMI | ||||||||||
Overall 1 | 0.427 | 2 | 0.653 | 0.007 | 125 | 3.040 | 2 | 0.051 | 0.047 | 125 |
UK | 0.987 | 2 | 0.377 | 0.021 | 95 | 0.252 | 2 | 0.778 | 0.012 | 46 |
US 1 | 0.326 | 2 | 0.725 | 0.024 | 30 | 3.820 | 2 | 0.026 | 0.091 | 79 |
Total Body Fat | ||||||||||
Overall | 3.062 | 2 | 0.050 | 0.048 | 125 | 1.521 | 2 | 0.233 | 0.025 | 125 |
UK | 5.502 | 2 | 0.006 | 0.108 | 95 | 0.375 | 2 | 0.690 | 0.018 | 46 |
US | 0.245 | 2 | 0.784 | 0.019 | 30 | 3.557 | 2 | 0.033 | 0.087 | 79 |
Fat Free Mass | ||||||||||
Overall | 0.044 | 2 | 0.957 | 0.001 | 125 | 6.524 | 2 | 0.002 | 0.097 | 125 |
UK | 0.165 | 2 | 0.848 | 0.004 | 95 | 2.176 | 2 | 0.126 | 0.094 | 46 |
US | 0.190 | 2 | 0.828 | 0.014 | 30 | 4.679 | 2 | 0.012 | 0.111 | 79 |
Waist Circumference | ||||||||||
Overall | 1.612 | 2 | 0.204 | 0.026 | 125 | 3.194 | 2 | 0.044 | 0.050 | 125 |
UK | 2.309 | 2 | 0.105 | 0.048 | 95 | 1.221 | 2 | 0.305 | 0.055 | 46 |
US | 0.037 | 2 | 0.964 | 0.003 | 30 | 4.598 | 2 | 0.013 | 0.109 | 79 |
Waist to Hip Ratio | ||||||||||
Overall | 1.080 | 2 | 0.343 | 0.018 | 125 | 2.761 | 2 | 0.067 | 0.044 | 125 |
UK | 0.717 | 2 | 0.491 | 0.016 | 95 | 1.438 | 2 | 0.249 | 0.064 | 46 |
US | 0.240 | 2 | 0.788 | 0.018 | 30 | 2.983 | 2 | 0.057 | 0.074 | 79 |
All 1 | SL | IU | SD | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SEM) | |||||||||
Fruit Juice (glasses/week) | |||||||||
Overall | 1.65 (0.16) | 1.64 (0.21) | 1.66 (0.27) | 1.60 (0.38) | |||||
UK | 2.04 (0.28) † | 1.68 (0.28) | 2.09 (0.45) | 2.35 (0.77) | |||||
US | 1.20 (0.14) | 1.56 (0.33) | 1.13 (0.21) | 0.96 (0.22) | |||||
Concentrated Juice Drinks, or Any Juice Drink with Added Sugar (glasses/week) | |||||||||
Overall | 1.35 (0.24) | 1.57 (0.58) | 1.25 (0.34) | 1.36 (0.37) | |||||
UK | 1.25 (0.33) | 0.85 (0.19) | 1.49 (0.61) | 1.37 (0.69) | |||||
US | 1.47 (0.36) † | 2.75 (1.48) | 0.97 (0.18) | 1.35 (0.38) | |||||
Energy/Sports Drinks or Sweetened Caffeinated Drinks (glasses/week) | |||||||||
Overall | 0.61 (0.06) | 0.65 (0.12) | 0.51 (0.04) | 0.82 (0.20) | |||||
UK | 0.53 (0.06) | 0.53 (0.10) | 0.50 (0.07) | 0.64 (0.22) | |||||
US | 0.70 (0.11) † | 0.84 (0.28) | 0.52 (0.06) | 0.96 (0.33) | |||||
Soft Drinks (glasses/week) | |||||||||
Overall | 1.30 (0.12) | 1.07 (0.14) | 1.35 (0.19) | 1.57 (0.31) | |||||
UK | 1.24 (0.17) | 0.94 (0.16) | 1.39 (0.29) | 1.41 (0.40) | |||||
US | 1.37 (0.18) | 1.29 (0.25) | 1.29 (0.25) | 1.71 (0.46) | |||||
Diet Soft Drinks (glasses/week) | |||||||||
Overall | 1.20 (0.20) | 1.42 (0.57) | 1.33 (0.25) | 0.74 (0.14) | |||||
UK | 1.10 (0.16) | 1.05 (0.18) | 1.26 (0.29) | 0.83 (0.23) | |||||
US | 1.33 (0.39) | 2.02 (1.49) | 1.42 (0.42) | 0.67 (0.16) | |||||
Tea or Coffee (cups/day) | |||||||||
Overall | 1.61 (0.09) | 1.35 (0.15) | 1.69 (0.14) | 1.73 (0.18) | |||||
UK | 1.90 (0.13) † | 1.63 (0.21) | 1.96 (0.20) | 2.22 (0.24) | |||||
US | 1.26 (0.11) | 0.90 (0.17) | 1.36 (0.18) | 1.32 (0.25) | |||||
Wine (glasses/week) 2 | |||||||||
Overall | 1.98 (0.18) | 1.95 (0.31) | 1.85 (0.29) | 1.89 (0.32) | |||||
UK | 1.54 (0.41) | 1.52 (0.45) | 1.58 (0.74) | 1.46 (0.56) | |||||
US | 2.21 (0.18) † | 2.27 (0.43) | 1.99 (0.23) | 2.10 (0.39) | |||||
Beer, Cider, or Cooler (half pints/week) 2 | |||||||||
Overall | 2.62 (0.19) | 2.52 (0.40) | 2.81 (0.25) | 2.34 (0.47) | |||||
UK | 2.45 (0.33) | 3.20 (0.73) | 2.20 (0.42) | 2.05 (0.66) | |||||
US | 2.70 (0.23) | 2.03 (0.43) | 3.11 (0.31) * | 2.49 (0.64) | |||||
Spirits/Hard Liquor (shots/week) 2 | |||||||||
Overall | 1.30 (0.17) | 2.00 (0.61) | 1.25 (0.17) | 0.83 (0.16) | |||||
UK | 1.60 (0.43) | 3.25 (1.33) * | 1.18 (0.37) | 0.47 (0.09) | |||||
US | 1.14 (0.13) | 1.10 (0.35) | 1.29 (0.19) | 1.01 (0.23) |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Iatridi, V.; Armitage, R.M.; Yeomans, M.R.; Hayes, J.E. Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking—Obesity Hypothesis. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2702. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092702
Iatridi V, Armitage RM, Yeomans MR, Hayes JE. Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking—Obesity Hypothesis. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9):2702. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092702
Chicago/Turabian StyleIatridi, Vasiliki, Rhiannon M. Armitage, Martin R. Yeomans, and John E. Hayes. 2020. "Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking—Obesity Hypothesis" Nutrients 12, no. 9: 2702. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092702
APA StyleIatridi, V., Armitage, R. M., Yeomans, M. R., & Hayes, J. E. (2020). Effects of Sweet-Liking on Body Composition Depend on Age and Lifestyle: A Challenge to the Simple Sweet-Liking—Obesity Hypothesis. Nutrients, 12(9), 2702. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092702