Total, Added, and Free Sugar Consumption and Adherence to Guidelines in Switzerland: Results from the First National Nutrition Survey menuCH
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.3. Total, Added, and Free Sugars: Definitions, Calculations, and Recommendations
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Te Morenga, L.; Mallard, S.; Mann, J. Dietary sugars and body weight: Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. BMJ 2012, 346, e7492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keller, A.; Torre, S.B. Della sugar-sweetened beverages and obesity among children and adolescents: A review of systematic literature reviews. Child. Obes. 2015, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malik, V.S.; Pan, A.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 1084–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moynihan, P. Sugars and dental caries: Evidence for setting a recommended threshold for intake. Adv. Nutr. 2016, 7, 149–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moynihan, P.J.; Kelly, S.A.M. Effect on caries of restricting sugars intake. J. Dent. Res. 2014, 93, 8–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Koning, L.; Malik, V.S.; Rimm, E.B.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 93, 1321–1327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malik, V.S.; Popkin, B.M.; Bray, G.A.; Despres, J.-P.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2010, 33, 2477–2483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, Z.; Ley, S.H.; Sun, Q.; Hu, F.B.; Malik, V.S. Cross-sectional association between sugar-sweetened beverage intake and cardiometabolic biomarkers in US women. Br. J. Nutr. 2018, 119, 570–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Keller, A.; Heitmann, B.L.; Olsen, N. Sugar-sweetened beverages, vascular risk factors and events: A systematic literature review. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 18, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fuchs, M.A.; Sato, K.; Niedzwiecki, D.; Ye, X.; Saltz, L.B.; Mayer, R.J.; Mowat, R.B.; Whittom, R.; Hantel, A.; Benson, A.; et al. Sugar-sweetened beverage intake and cancer recurrence and survival in CALGB 89803 (Alliance). PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e99816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van Blarigan, E.L.; Meyerhardt, J.A. Role of physical activity and diet after colorectal cancer diagnosis. J. Clin. Oncol. 2015, 33, 1825–1834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Port, A.M.; Ruth, M.R.; Istfan, N.W. Fructose consumption and cancer. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2012, 19, 367–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wijarnpreecha, K.; Thongprayoon, C.; Edmonds, P.J.; Cheungpasitporn, W. Associations of sugar-and artificially sweetened soda with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. QJM 2016, 109, 461–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- An, Y.; Varma, V.R.; Varma, S.; Casanova, R.; Dammer, E.; Pletnikova, O.; Chia, C.W.; Egan, J.M.; Ferrucci, L.; Troncoso, J.; et al. Evidence for brain glucose dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s Dement. 2018, 14, 318–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pase, M.P.; Himali, J.J.; Jacques, P.F.; DeCarli, C.; Satizabal, C.L.; Aparicio, H.; Vasan, R.S.; Beiser, A.S.; Seshadri, S. Sugary beverage intake and preclinical Alzheimer’s disease in the community. Alzheimer’s Dement. 2017, 13, 955–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/149782/9789241549028_eng.pdf;jsessionid=EFC3B0F9BB09F52DD42BF59E35690A81?sequence=1 (accessed on 17 May 2019).
- Health at a Glance: Europe 2018. OECD, 2018. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/health/health-at-a-glance-europe-23056088.htm (accessed on 17 May 2019).
- Obesity Update—OECD. Available online: http://www.oecd.org/health/obesity-update.htm (accessed on 26 March 2019).
- Federal Commission for Nutrition. Recommendations of the Federal Commission for Nutrition on Carbohydrate Intake. Available online: https://www.eek.admin.ch/eek/en/home/pub/kohlenhydrate-in-der-ernaehrung-.html (accessed on 17 May 2019).
- Azaïs-Braesco, V.; Sluik, D.; Maillot, M.; Kok, F.; Moreno, L.A. A review of total & added sugar intakes and dietary sources in Europe. Nutr. J. 2017, 16, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newens, K.J.; Walton, J. A review of sugar consumption from nationally representative dietary surveys across the world. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet 2016, 29, 225–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailey, R.; Fulgoni, V.; Cowan, A.; Gaine, P. Sources of added sugars in young children, adolescents, and adults with low and high intakes of added sugars. Nutrients 2018, 10, 102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nutri-Score Nutritional Score and Color grades. Available online: https://world.openfoodfacts.org/nutriscore (accessed on 22 March 2019).
- Yeung, C.H.C.; Gohil, P.; Rangan, A.M.; Flood, V.M.; Arcot, J.; Gill, T.P.; Louie, J.C.Y. Modelling of the impact of universal added sugar reduction through food reformulation. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 17392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Iacobucci, G. Government urges food industry to cut 20% of sugar and reduce portion sizes. BMJ 2016, 355, i5348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Powell, L.M.; Maciejewski, M.L. Taxes and Sugar-Sweetened Beverages. JAMA 2018, 319, 229–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Swiss Nutrition Strategy. Available online: https://www.blv.admin.ch/blv/en/home/das-blv/strategien/schweizer-ernaehrungsstrategie.html (accessed on 4 March 2019).
- Chatelan, A.; Beer-Borst, S.; Randriamiharisoa, A.; Pasquier, J.; Blanco, J.; Siegenthaler, S.; Paccaud, F.; Slimani, N.; Nicolas, G.; Camenzind-Frey, E.; et al. Major differences in diet across three linguistic regions of Switzerland: Results from the First National Nutrition Survey menuCH. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Federal Statistical Office Stichprobenrahmen für Personen- und Haushaltserhebungen (Swiss persons and households registry). Available online: https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/grundlagen/volkszaehlung/volkszaehlung-teil-gesamtsystem/stichprobenrahmen.html (accessed on 7 May 2019).
- Slimani, N.; Casagrande, C.; Nicolas, G.; Freisling, H.; Huybrechts, I.; Ocke, M.C.; Niekerk, E.M.; van Rossum, C.; Bellemans, M.; De Maeyer, M.; et al. The standardized computerized 24-h dietary recall method EPIC-Soft adapted for pan-European dietary monitoring. Eur J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, S5–S15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Crispim, S.P.; de Vries, J.H.; Geelen, A.; Souverein, O.W.; Hulshof, P.J.; Lafay, L.; Rousseau, A.S.; Lillegaard, I.T.; Andersen, L.F.; Huybrechts, I.; et al. Two non-consecutive 24 h recalls using EPIC-Soft software are sufficiently valid for comparing protein and potassium intake between five European centres--results from the European Food Consumption Validation (EFCOVAL) study. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 105, 447–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Camenzind-Frey, E.; Zuberbuehler, C.A. menuCH—Schweizerisches Fotobuch/Livre Photo Suisse/Manuale Fotografico Svizzero (menuCH picture book); Federal Office of Public Health & Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office: Bern, Switzerland, 2014.
- Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office Swiss Food Composition Database. Available online: http://naehrwertdaten.ch (accessed on 7 May 2019).
- Presser, K.; Weber, D.; Norrie, M. FoodCASE: A system to manage food composition, consumption and TDS data. Food Chem. 2018, 238, 166–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mela, D.J.; Woolner, E.M. Perspective: Total, added, or free? What kind of sugars should we be talking about? Adv. Nutr. 2018, 9, 63–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- French Agency for Food Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) Ciqual—Table de composition nutritionnelle des aliments (French Food Composition Table). Available online: https://ciqual.anses.fr/ (accessed on 7 May 2019).
- Bowman, S.A. Added sugars: Definition and estimation in the USDA Food Patterns Equivalents Databases. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2017, 64, 64–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sluik, D.; van Lee, L.; Engelen, A.; Feskens, E. Total, Free, and Added Sugar Consumption and Adherence to Guidelines: The Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2007–2010. Nutrients 2016, 8, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Swan, G.E.; Powell, N.A.; Knowles, B.L.; Bush, M.T.; Levy, L.B. A definition of free sugars for the UK. Public Heal. Nutr 2018, 21, 1636–1638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Harttig, U.; Haubrock, J.; Knuppel, S.; Boeing, H.; Consortium, E. The MSM program: Web-based statistics package for estimating usual dietary intake using the Multiple Source Method. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, S87–S91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wittekind, A.; Walton, J. Worldwide trends in dietary sugars intake. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2014, 27, 330–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Louie, J.C.Y.; Moshtaghian, H.; Rangan, A.M.; Flood, V.M.; Gill, T.P. Intake and sources of added sugars among Australian children and adolescents. Eur. J. Nutr. 2016, 55, 2347–2355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Total sugars | Added sugars | Free sugar | |||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | Weighted N (%) | Mean in g | SD | Median in g | P25 | P75 | % TEI (mean) | % Total CHO (mean) | Mean in g | SD | Median in g | P25 | P75 | % TEI (mean) | % Total sugars (mean) | Mean in g | SD | Median in g | P25 | P75 | % TEI (mean) | % Total sugars (mean) | |
All | 2057 (100) | 4,627,878 (100) | 107 | 44 | 100 | 76 | 130 | 19.3 | 46.0 | 53 | 36 | 44 | 29 | 66 | 9.3 | 48.0 | 65 | 40 | 56 | 38 | 83 | 11.5 | 58.6 |
Sex Men | 933 (45) | 2,305,141 (50) | 114 | 49 | 108 | 80 | 142 | 18.1 | 43.4 | 61 | 41 | 50 | 33 | 79 | 9.4 | 51.2 | 73 | 44 | 65 | 43 | 96 | 11.4 | 62.0 |
Women | 1124 (55) | 2,322,737 (50) | 99 | 37 | 94 | 73 | 119 | 20.5 | 48.5 | 46 | 28 | 39 | 27 | 56 | 9.3 | 44.8 | 57 | 32 | 50 | 34 | 69 | 11.5 | 55.3 |
Age 18–29 y | 400 (19) | 870,489 (19) | 113 | 47 | 109 | 79 | 137 | 19.6 | 44.0 | 63 | 41 | 53 | 33 | 81 | 10.5 | 52.7 | 75 | 45 | 67 | 42 | 97 | 12.7 | 63.5 |
30–64 y | 1319 (64) | 3,108,362 (67) | 107 | 44 | 100 | 77 | 130 | 19.2 | 45.9 | 53 | 36 | 44 | 29 | 65 | 9.3 | 48.0 | 65 | 39 | 56 | 38 | 82 | 11.4 | 58.6 |
65–75 y | 338 (16) | 649,026 (14) | 99 | 38 | 94 | 73 | 121 | 19.5 | 48.7 | 42 | 25 | 37 | 26 | 52 | 8.1 | 41.7 | 53 | 28 | 47 | 33 | 66 | 10.2 | 52.4 |
Linguistic region German-speaking | 1341 (65) | 3,183,216 (69) | 110 | 44 | 104 | 78 | 134 | 19.5 | 46.2 | 54 | 36 | 46 | 30 | 68 | 9.4 | 47.6 | 66 | 40 | 58 | 39 | 87 | 11.6 | 58.2 |
French-speaking | 502 (24) | 1,187,738 (26) | 103 | 43 | 95 | 73 | 121 | 19.1 | 46.1 | 52 | 35 | 44 | 29 | 64 | 9.4 | 49.3 | 64 | 38 | 56 | 36 | 79 | 11.6 | 60.2 |
Italian-speaking | 214 (10) | 256,925 (6) | 89 | 44 | 84 | 61 | 108 | 17.3 | 41.9 | 43 | 35 | 33 | 24 | 50 | 8.1 | 46.9 | 51 | 38 | 43 | 31 | 60 | 9.7 | 56.1 |
Education (highest degree) 1 No university degree | 1057 (51) | 2,210,585 (48) | 105 | 46 | 97 | 72 | 127 | 19.3 | 46.1 | 54 | 38 | 44 | 28 | 66 | 9.6 | 48.9 | 65 | 42 | 56 | 36 | 82 | 11.7 | 59.5 |
University degree | 997 (48) | 2,405,018 (52) | 108 | 41 | 104 | 79 | 132 | 19.3 | 45.9 | 52 | 33 | 44 | 31 | 66 | 9.1 | 47.0 | 64 | 36 | 56 | 39 | 83 | 11.2 | 57.8 |
Nationality 1 Swiss | 1789 (87) | 3,470,404 (75) | 107 | 43 | 101 | 77 | 131 | 19.5 | 46.2 | 53 | 34 | 45 | 30 | 68 | 9.4 | 47.9 | 65 | 38 | 58 | 38 | 84 | 11.5 | 58.7 |
Non-Swiss | 265 (13) | 1,145,199 (25) | 105 | 45 | 97 | 73 | 126 | 18.8 | 45.1 | 53 | 40 | 41 | 28 | 63 | 9.2 | 48.0 | 64 | 43 | 53 | 36 | 79 | 11.2 | 58.1 |
All (n = 2057, Weighted n = 4,627,878) | Men (n = 933, Weighted n = 2,305,141) | Women (n = 1,124, Weighted n = 2,322,737) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food group | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free Sugars (%) | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free sugars (%) | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free Sugars (%) |
Tubercles and potato products | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Vegetables | 6.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 6.1 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 7.2 | 0.8 | 0.6 |
Fruit | 20.7 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 17.5 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 23.8 | 0.2 | 1.6 |
Nuts, seeds, and olives | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Dairy products | 13.0 | 10.0 | 8.6 | 12.4 | 9.5 | 8.2 | 13.6 | 10.5 | 8.9 |
Milk | 5.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 4.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 5.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Dairy beverages | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.2 |
Dairy desserts | 1.1 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 1.7 |
Yogurt | 5.5 | 6.7 | 5.8 | 5.3 | 6.8 | 6.0 | 5.6 | 6.6 | 5.5 |
Cottage cheese, quark | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 |
Bread, bread products, and dough | 2.8 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 2.9 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 2.2 |
Breakfast cereals | 1.1 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 1.2 | 2.5 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 2.4 |
Other starchy foods, cereals, and legumes | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Sweet products | 28.1 | 55.4 | 47.4 | 29.2 | 54.0 | 46.5 | 27.0 | 56.7 | 48.3 |
Table sugar | 4.2 | 8.8 | 7.4 | 5.1 | 10.1 | 8.6 | 3.4 | 7.6 | 6.1 |
Honey, jam, and other sweet sauces/spreads | 8.5 | 16.6 | 14.7 | 9.4 | 17.3 | 15.2 | 7.6 | 15.9 | 14.1 |
Confectionary and candies | 3.7 | 7.3 | 6.2 | 3.2 | 5.9 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 8.7 | 7.4 |
Pure chocolate | 2.3 | 5.0 | 4.1 | 2.1 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 6.0 | 4.9 |
Syrups | 1.0 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 1.7 |
Ice cream | 1.2 | 2.5 | 2.1 | 1.2 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 2.3 |
Cakes and cookies | 7.1 | 13.4 | 11.3 | 7.2 | 12.8 | 10.9 | 7.0 | 14.0 | 11.7 |
Beverages | 19.9 | 17.4 | 29.4 | 22.8 | 20.5 | 32.4 | 17.1 | 14.2 | 26.4 |
Fruit and vegetable juices | 8.3 | 1.8 | 12.9 | 8.3 | 1.8 | 12.4 | 8.2 | 1.8 | 13.5 |
Soft drinks | 9.1 | 13.2 | 12.1 | 11.8 | 16.6 | 15.3 | 6.4 | 9.9 | 8.9 |
Water | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
Coffee and tea | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.8 |
Alcoholic drinks | 1.6 | 1.2 | 3.4 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 3.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 2.9 |
Processed meat | 0.4 | 2.1 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 1.7 | 1.2 |
Processed fish and seafood | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.0 |
Sauces, condiments, and flavorings | 2.7 | 6.1 | 4.6 | 2.9 | 5.6 | 4.3 | 2.6 | 6.6 | 4.9 |
Soups | 1.1 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.6 |
Salty snacks | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.4 |
Others/miscellaneous | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.5 |
18 to 29 years old (n = 400, Weighted n = 870,489) | 30 to 64 years old (n = 1319, Weighted n =3,108,362) | 65 to 75 years old (n = 338, Weighted n = 649,026) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food group | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free Sugars (%) | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free Sugars (%) | Total Sugars (%) | Added Sugars (%) | Free Sugars (%) |
Tubercles and potato products | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Vegetables | 6.1 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 6.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 6.6 | 0.4 | 0.2 |
Fruit | 15.3 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 20.7 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 27.7 | 0.3 | 1.8 |
Nuts, seeds, and olives | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Dairy products | 12.6 | 8.7 | 7.5 | 13.1 | 10.2 | 8.7 | 12.8 | 10.9 | 9.4 |
Milk | 5.6 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 4.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Dairy beverages | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
Dairy desserts | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.6 |
Yogurt | 4.3 | 5.8 | 5.1 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 5.7 | 6.2 | 8.0 | 7.0 |
Cottage cheese, quark | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
Bread, bread products, and dough | 2.9 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 2.9 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1.8 |
Breakfast cereals | 2.0 | 4.4 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 1.5 | 1.4 |
Other starchy foods, cereals, and legumes | 1.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Sweet products | 24.2 | 43.8 | 37.6 | 28.6 | 56.2 | 48.0 | 30.8 | 67.1 | 57.8 |
Table sugar | 3.2 | 6.1 | 5.2 | 4.6 | 9.6 | 8.1 | 3.7 | 8.6 | 7.1 |
Honey, jam, and other sweet sauces/spreads | 6.4 | 11.8 | 10.4 | 8.0 | 15.5 | 13.5 | 13.4 | 28.4 | 25.8 |
Confectionary and candies | 4.9 | 9.0 | 7.8 | 3.7 | 7.3 | 6.2 | 2.2 | 5.2 | 4.3 |
Pure chocolate | 1.8 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.5 | 5.5 | 4.5 | 1.7 | 4.3 | 3.5 |
Syrups | 1.0 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 1.6 |
Ice cream | 1.2 | 2.1 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 3.7 | 3.2 |
Cakes and cookies | 5.7 | 9.6 | 8.0 | 7.5 | 14.1 | 12.0 | 7.3 | 15.4 | 12.4 |
Beverages | 28.0 | 27.4 | 37.7 | 19.3 | 16.6 | 28.8 | 12.5 | 7.5 | 21.0 |
Fruit and vegetable juices | 9.3 | 2.6 | 13.4 | 8.1 | 1.7 | 12.8 | 7.6 | 1.3 | 13.1 |
Soft drinks | 15.9 | 22.1 | 20.1 | 8.5 | 12.5 | 11.4 | 3.0 | 4.8 | 4.3 |
Water | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Coffee and tea | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.3 |
Alcoholic drinks | 1.8 | 1.3 | 3.0 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 3.6 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 3.2 |
Processed meat | 0.5 | 2.2 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 2.1 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 1.8 | 1.1 |
Processed fish and seafood | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Sauces, condiments, and flavorings | 3.4 | 6.8 | 5.6 | 2.8 | 6.1 | 4.6 | 1.8 | 5.3 | 3.4 |
Soups | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.3 |
Salty snacks | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.5 |
Others/miscellaneous | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
n (%) | Weighted n (%) | Free sugar: <10% of TEI (%) 2,3 | p-Value 4 | Free Sugar: <5% of TEI (%) 5 | p-Value 4 | Free sugar: max. 50 g/day 3 | p-Value 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | 2057 (100) | 4,627,878 (100) | 44% | 8% | 42% | |||
Sex Men | 933 (45) | 2,305,141 (50) | 45% | 9% | 35% | |||
Women | 1124 (55) | 2,322,737 (50) | 44% | 0.65 | 8% | 0.32 | 50% | <0.001 |
Age 18–29 y | 400 (19) | 870,489 (19) | 36% | 7% | 34% | |||
30–64 y | 1319 (64) | 3,108,362 (67) | 45% | 8% | 42% | |||
65–75 y | 338 (16) | 649,026 (14) | 53% | <0.001 | 11% | 0.48 | 54% | <0.001 |
Linguistic region German-speaking | 1341 (65) | 3,183,216 (69) | 44% | 9% | 40% | |||
French-speaking | 502 (24) | 1,187,738 (26) | 42% | 6% | 42% | |||
Italian-speaking | 214 (10) | 256,925 (6) | 62% | 0.002 | 13% | 0.039 | 64% | <0.001 |
Education (highest degree) 1 No university degree | 1057 (51) | 2,210,585 (48) | 43% | 8% | 43% | |||
University degree | 997 (48) | 2,405,018 (52) | 46% | 0.44 | 9% | 0.97 | 41% | 0.46 |
Nationality 1 Swiss | 1789 (87) | 3,470,404 (75) | 43% | 8% | 42% | |||
Non-Swiss | 265 (13) | 1,145,199 (25) | 50% | 0.09 | 10% | 0.24 | 43% | 0.68 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Chatelan, A.; Gaillard, P.; Kruseman, M.; Keller, A. Total, Added, and Free Sugar Consumption and Adherence to Guidelines in Switzerland: Results from the First National Nutrition Survey menuCH. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051117
Chatelan A, Gaillard P, Kruseman M, Keller A. Total, Added, and Free Sugar Consumption and Adherence to Guidelines in Switzerland: Results from the First National Nutrition Survey menuCH. Nutrients. 2019; 11(5):1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051117
Chicago/Turabian StyleChatelan, Angeline, Pierre Gaillard, Maaike Kruseman, and Amelie Keller. 2019. "Total, Added, and Free Sugar Consumption and Adherence to Guidelines in Switzerland: Results from the First National Nutrition Survey menuCH" Nutrients 11, no. 5: 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051117