Identifying Factors Related to Food Agency: Cooking Habits in the Spanish Adult Population—A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Study Design
- •
- Underweight: <18.5 kg/m2;
- •
- Normal range: 18.50–24.99 kg/m2;
- •
- Pre-obesity: 25.00–29.99 kg/m2;
- •
- Obesity: ≥30 kg/m2.
2.2. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Cooking Task: To Cook or Not to Cook
3.2. Learning How to Cook
3.3. Decisions Made While Preparing a Meal
3.4. Cooking Techniques
3.5. Results by Weight Groups
4. Discussion
4.1. To Cook or Not to Cook
4.2. How People Learn to Cook
4.3. Cooking Techniques
4.4. Preparing a Meal
4.5. Results by BMI Categories
5. Conclusions
6. Strengths and Limitations
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questionnaire on Cooking Habits
Q.1. Gender: | Code |
Male | 1 |
Female | 2 |
Q.2. How old are you? Age: | Code |
18–30 years | 1 |
31–49 years | 2 |
50–64 years | 3 |
65–75 years | 4 |
>75 years | 5 |
Q.3. Where do you live? Province: ________________ City/Village: _____________ Habitat size | Code |
< 2000 inhabitants | 1 |
2001–10,000 inhabitants | 2 |
10,001–10,000 inhabitants | 3 |
100,001–500,000 inhabitants | 4 |
> 500,000 inhabitants | 5 |
Q.4. Nationality | Code |
Spanish | 1 |
Other: ___________ | 2 |
Q.5. Employment Status: Are you currently…? | Code | Q.5.1. For how long you have been unemployed? |
Self-employed | 1 | ______________________ |
Working for others | 2 | |
Housewife (domestic work) | 3 | |
Unemployed (Go to Question Q.5.1) | 4 | |
Student | 5 | |
Retired | 6 | |
Other: __________________________ | 7 |
Q.6. Do you know how to cook? | Code |
Yes | 1 |
No | 0 |
Q.7. From 1 to 10, how much do you like cooking? Being 1: “I don’t like it at all” and 10 “I like it very much”? | |||||||||
I don’t like it at all | I don’t like it | I do not like or dislike it | I like it | I like it very much | |||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
Q.8. Are you the person in charge of food preparation at home? | Code |
I am 100% in charge | 1 |
I am 50% in charge | 2 |
I am <50% in charge | 3 |
I am in charge occasionally | 4 |
I am not involved in cooking | 5 |
If Q.8 = 1 or 2, go to Q.8 If Q.8 ≠ 1 or 2, you are finished. |
Q.9. How did you learn to cook? | Code |
Practicing (self-taught) | 1 |
From a family member | 2 |
Other person taught me (friends, partner…) | 3 |
Reading cooking-books and magazines | 4 |
Watching cooking TV-shows | 5 |
Using the Internet | 6 |
Cooking courses | 7 |
Other (specify) | 8 |
Q.10. For how many persons do you usually cook? |
Q.11. How much time do you spend cooking (weekly)? |
Q.12. When organizing meals, what do you usually take into account? (Multiple choice) | Code |
Own food preferences | 1 |
Other people’s food preferences | 2 |
Healthiness of menu | 3 |
Price | 4 |
Convenience | 5 |
Nutritional balance | 6 |
Following a special diet | 7 |
Other (specify) | 8 |
Q.13. What is your preferred cooking method? (Multiple choice) | Code |
Grill | 1 |
Oven | 2 |
Steaming | 3 |
Stew | 4 |
Frying | 5 |
Microwave | 6 |
Other (specify) | 7 |
Q14. Which of the following devices do you have in your kitchen? (Multiple choice) | Code |
Oven | 1 |
Microwave | 2 |
Dishwasher machine | 3 |
Ceramic hob | 4 |
Fridge | 5 |
Mixer | 6 |
Coffee maker | 7 |
Toaster | 8 |
Grill | 9 |
Cooking Robot | 10 |
Barbecue | 11 |
Other | 12 |
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Odds Ratio | p | CI (95%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender * | ||||
Women a | 7.25 | <0.0005 | 5.704 | 9.213 |
Age ** (years) | ||||
31–49 b | 4.044 | <0.0005 | 2.945 | 5.554 |
50–64 b | 3.499 | <0.0005 | 2.453 | 4.992 |
65–75 b | 3.822 | <0.0005 | 2.408 | 6.068 |
>75 b | 3.753 | <0.0005 | 2.381 | 5.914 |
18–30 Years | 31–49 Years | 50–64 Years | 65–75 Years | >75 Years | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men (n = 59) | Women (n = 83) | Total (n = 142) | Men (n = 208) | Women (n = 354) | Total (n = 562) | Men (n = 83) | Women (n = 216) | Total (n = 299) | Men (n = 26) | Women (n = 113) | Total (n = 139) | Men (n = 30) | Women (n = 124) | Total (n = 154) | |
Own experience | 54.2 1 | 30.1 *,1 | 40.1 1 | 51 1 | 38.4 *,1 | 43.1 1 | 60.4 1 | 43.1 *,1 | 47.8 1 | 42.3 1 | 44.2 1 | 43.9 1 | 56.7 1 | 32.3 *,1 | 37 1 |
From family | 39 1 | 48.2 2 | 44.4 1 | 32.2 2 | 46.6 *,2 | 41.3 1 | 26.5 2 | 45.8 *,1 | 40.5 1 | 42.3 1 | 45.1 1 | 44.6 1 | 33.3 1 | 48.4 *,2 | 45.5 1 |
Books/TV | 0 | 4.8 3 | 2.8 2 | 2.4 3 | 3.7 3 | 3.2 2 | 3.6 3 | 3.7 2 | 3.7 2 | 3.8 2 | 5.3 2 | 5 2 | 10 2 | 6.4 3 | 7.1 2 |
Internet | 1.7 2 | 4.8 3 | 3.5 2 | 4.8 3 | 2.8 3 | 3.6 2 | 2.4 3 | 0 | 0.7 2 | 0 | 0.9 2 | 0.7 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Cooking courses | 5.1 2 | 2.4 3 | 3.5 2 | 1 3 | 1.1 3 | 1.1 3 | 2.4 3 | 0.9 2 | 1.3 2 | 7.7 2 | 0.9 2 | 2.2 2 | 0 | 0.8 4 | 0.6 2 |
Other | 0 | 9.7 *,3 | 5.7 2 | 8.6 4 | 7.4 4 | 7.7 4 | 4.9 3 | 6.5 2 | 6 2 | 3.9 2 | 3.6 2 | 3.6 2 | 0 | 12.1 *,3 | 9.8 2 |
18–30 Years | 31–49 Years | 50–64 Years | 65–75 Years | >75 Years | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men (n = 59) | Women (n = 83) | Total (n = 142) | Men (n = 208) | Women (n = 354) | Total (n = 562) | Men (n = 83) | Women (n = 216) | Total (n = 219) | Men (n = 26) | Women (n = 113) | Total (n = 139) | Men (n = 30) | Women (n = 124) | Total (n = 154) | |
Own food preferences | 32.8 1 | 44.2 1 | 39.5 1,a | 28.2 1 | 29.5 1 | 29 1,b | 38.4 1 | 27 *,1 | 30.1 1,b | 45.6 1 | 26.9 1 | 32.8 1,a,b | 40.4 1 | 32 1 | 33.7 1,a,b |
Other people’s food preferences | 46.3 1 | 56.5 1 | 52.3 2,a | 53.2 2 | 66.2 *,2 | 61.4 2,b | 50 1 | 65.6 *,2 | 61.4 2,b | 37.7 1,b | 55.7 2 | 52.4 2,a | 44.6 1,a | 47.9 2 | 47.2 2,a |
Healthiness of menu | 33.6 1 | 47.8 1 | 41.9 1,a | 43.3 3 | 51.3 3 | 48.3 3,a | 41.4 1 | 46.8 3 | 45.3 3,a | 51.4 1 | 49.6 2 | 49.9 2,a | 34.4 1 | 48.1 2 | 45.4 2,a |
Price | 12.2 2 | 23.2 2 | 18.7 3,a | 14.6 4 | 23.3 *,1 | 20 4,a | 24.3 2 | 21.6 4 | 22.6 4,a | 3.3 2 | 25.7 *,1 | 21.8 3,a | 16.2 2 | 26.3 1 | 24.3 1,a |
Convenience | 13.5 2 | 21 2 | 17.9 3,a | 15.2 4 | 14.8 4 | 14.9 5,a | 23.7 2 | 11 *,5 | 14.4 5,a | 0 | 8.8 3,4 | 7.24 5,b | 6 2 | 6 3 | 8.4 3,b |
Nutritional balance | 8.3 2 | 19.8 2,3 | 15.2 3,4,a | 16.5 4 | 23.8 *,1 | 21.1 4,a | 24.2 2 | 20.4 4 | 21.5 4,a | 0 | 12.6 3 | 10.3 4,a | 7 2 | 14.5,4 | 13 3,a |
Following a special diet | 17.2 1,2 | 20.6 2 | 19.2 3,a | 14.1 4 | 17.3 4 | 16.1 4,a | 19.9 2 | 17.9 4 | 18.5 4,a | 10.5 2 | 16.7 1,3 | 15.5 3,4,a | 8.9 2 | 11.9 3,4,5 | 11.3 3,a |
Other criteria | 6.9 2 | 9.8 3 | 8.6 4,a | 6 5 | 7 5 | 6.6 5,a | 4.6 3 | 4.6 6 | 6.2 6,a | 1.9 2 | 4.2 4 | 3.8 5,a | 0 | 2.5 6 | 2.6 4,a |
18–30 Years | 31–49 Years | 50–64 Years | 65–75 Years | >75 Years | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men (n = 162) | Women (n = 157) | Total (n = 319) | Men (n = 404) | Women (n = 393) | Total (n = 797) | Men (n = 224) | Women (n = 232) | Total (n = 456) | Men (n = 102) | Women (n = 116) | Total (n = 218) | Men (n = 85) | Women (n = 136) | Total (n = 221) | |
Grill | 59.8 1 | 71 *,1 | 65.5 1,a | 68.7 1 | 61.5 *,1 | 65.2 1,a | 68.4 1 | 72.2 1 | 70.4 1,b | 61.4 1 | 62.2 1 | 61.8 1,a | 57.3 1 | 67.4 1 | 63.8 1,a |
Oven | 30.4 2 | 40 2 | 35.1 2,a | 46.9 2 | 53.1 2 | 44.9 2,b | 38.7 2 | 56.6 *,2 | 47.8 2,b | 28.7 2 | 38.9 2 | 34 2,a | 40.6 2 | 33.8 2 | 36.4 2,a |
Steaming | 12.5 3 | 15.9 3 | 14.2 3,a | 22.8 3 | 18.4 3,4 | 20.6 3,a | 20.3 3 | 29.7 *,3 | 25.1 3,b | 23.4 2 | 16.3 3 | 19.6 3,a | 25.3 3 | 24.4 2,3 | 24.7 3,b |
Stew | 35.1 2 | 23.7 *,3 | 29.5 2,a | 40.3 4 | 49.7 *,2 | 45 2,b | 53.6 4 | 57.8 2 | 55.7 4,c | 62.2 1 | 65.4 1 | 63.9 1,d | 59.3 1 | 62.1 1 | 61 1,c,d |
Frying | 27.4 2 | 16.2 *,3 | 21.9 4,a | 22.7 3 | 20.3 3 | 21.5 3,a | 26.3 5 | 22.3 3 | 24.3 3,a | 22.4 2 | 17.3 3 | 19.7 3,a | 27.5 2,3 | 23.1 2,3 | 24.8 3,a |
Microwave | 12 3 | 7.7 4 | 9.8 3,a | 7.9 5 | 9.3 4 | 12.4 4,a | 13.6 6 | 12.3 4 | 13 5,a | 17.5 2 | 12.4 3 | 14.8 3,a,b | 25.3 3 | 17.5 3 | 20.4 3,b |
Raw | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.4 6 | 0.1 5 | 0.4 5,a | 0 | 0.2 5 | 0.2 6,a | 0.4 3 | 0 | 0.4 4,a | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Underweight (n = 32) | Normal Weight (n = 1031) | Pre-Obese (n = 663) | Obese (n = 187) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Declared Ways of Learning How to Cook (%) | ||||
Own experience | 40.9 a,1 | 42 a,1 | 45.4 a,1 | 43.5 a,1 |
From family | 50 a,1 | 42.1 a,1 | 40.4 a,1 | 47.9 a,1 |
Books/TV | 4.5 a,2 | 4.9 a,2 | 2.8 a,2 | 2.5 a,2 |
Internet | 0 | 2.8 a,3 | 1.8 a,2,3 | 0.8 a,2 |
Cooking Courses | 0 | 1.6 a,3 | 1.5 a,2,3 | 0 |
Other | 4.5 a,2 | 6.3 a,2 | 7.6 a,2 | 3.4 a,2 |
Main Criteria When Planning Meals at Home (%) | ||||
Own food preferences | 51.8 a,1 | 28 b,1 | 34.2 c,1 | 37.4 a,c,1 |
Other people’s food preferences | 59 a,1 | 58.2 a,2 | 55.6 a,2 | 60.5 a,2 |
Healthiness of menu | 45.5 a,1 | 49.9 a,3 | 44.2 a,3 | 41.8 a,1 |
Price | 18.5 a,2,3 | 17.9 a,4 | 24.4 a,4 | 23 a,3 |
Convenience | 3.4 a,3 | 13.2 a,5 | 15.7 a,5 | 9.8 a,4 |
Nutritional balance | 20 a,b,2 | 21.1 a,4 | 15.5 b,5 | 17 a,b,3 |
Following a special diet | 9.3 a,3 | 15.5 a,4,5 | 17.1 a,5 | 19.8 a,3,4 |
Preference for Cooking Techniques (%) | ||||
Grill | 82.7 a,1 | 64.3 b,1 | 68.3 a,b,1 | 67.3 a,b,1 |
Oven | 50.8 a,2 | 42.6 a,2 | 42 a,2 | 37.1 a,2 |
Steaming | 22 a,3 | 19.4 a,2 | 23.6 a,3 | 15.9 a,3 |
Stew | 36.9 a,2,3 | 46.5 a,1,2 | 50.9 a,4 | 49.4 a,4 |
Frying | 39.7 a,2,3 | 20 b,2 | 25.8 a,3 | 18.5 b,3 |
Microwave | 13.3 a,3 | 11.2 a,3 | 14.4 a,5 | 11.4 a,3 |
Raw | 0 | 0.4 a,4 | 0.3 a,6 | 0 |
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García-González, Á.; Achón, M.; Alonso-Aperte, E.; Varela-Moreiras, G. Identifying Factors Related to Food Agency: Cooking Habits in the Spanish Adult Population—A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients 2018, 10, 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020217
García-González Á, Achón M, Alonso-Aperte E, Varela-Moreiras G. Identifying Factors Related to Food Agency: Cooking Habits in the Spanish Adult Population—A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients. 2018; 10(2):217. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020217
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcía-González, Ángela, María Achón, Elena Alonso-Aperte, and Gregorio Varela-Moreiras. 2018. "Identifying Factors Related to Food Agency: Cooking Habits in the Spanish Adult Population—A Cross-Sectional Study" Nutrients 10, no. 2: 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020217
APA StyleGarcía-González, Á., Achón, M., Alonso-Aperte, E., & Varela-Moreiras, G. (2018). Identifying Factors Related to Food Agency: Cooking Habits in the Spanish Adult Population—A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 10(2), 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020217