1. Introduction
On the basis of recent evaluations, landslides represent the most frequent geo-hazard, occurring worldwide more frequently than any other natural disaster, including earthquakes and volcanic eruptions [
1]. Landslides pose great threats to human lives, causing thousands of deaths and injured people every year (e.g., [
2,
3,
4]). Moreover, every year, landslides cause billions of dollars (e.g., [
5,
6,
7]) of direct and indirect socio-economic losses, in terms of property and infrastructure damage and environmental degradation.
In addition, landslide disasters show a documented increasing trend, mainly owing to the over exploitation of natural resources, improper land use planning and growing urbanization, which determines an increase in the population exposed to the landslide risk [
8]. In this sense, the effort of the scientific community is focused on determining every possible measure of risk mitigation.
At the basis of the risk mitigation strategies, there is the deep knowledge of the phenomena, which, in the landslide field, is related to monitoring activities. Dealing with landslides, monitoring activities rely on the measurement of displacement fields in order to assess the temporal evolution and spatial distribution of moving areas.
This type of information represents key parameters to geometry and kinematics assessment of a mass movement; it is of great value especially in those urbanized areas endangered by movement and where the investigated phenomenon is going to threat valuable elements at risk.
Remote sensing and Earth observation (EO) data have a major role to play for studying geohazard-related events at different stages, such as detection, mapping, hazard zonation, modeling, prediction and monitoring.
During the last decade, different monitoring and remote sensing techniques, devoted to landslide analysis, have undergone rapid development. Among them, Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) techniques have seen an increasingly greater spread. Firstly conceived of and developed for data acquired from space-borne platforms, InSAR methods were later applied also on ground-based platforms (GB-InSAR). Especially as regards landslide and unstable slope monitoring activities, GB-InSAR systems have become more and more popular over the last few years [
9,
10,
11].
InSAR techniques belong to the family of active remote sensing techniques, and thanks to their intrinsic characteristics, they present many advantages in the field of landslide monitoring and management with respect to conventional, geodetic techniques.
Among the several advantages that could be counted, the possibility to collect systematic and easily updatable acquisitions and to produce time displacement maps of several square kilometer wide areas can be considered the crucial benefits of these techniques. Moreover, they are able to observe the investigated instable areas under any light and weather conditions, obtaining displacement measurements with high precision.
PS-InSAR (Permanent Scatterer InSAR) [
12,
13] was the first technique, developed by TRE (TeleRilevamento Europa), specifically implemented for the processing of several (at least 15 or more) co-registered, multi-temporal space-borne SAR images of the same target area.
This kind of technique is useful in order to obtain the deformation time series and the deformation velocity of stable reflective point-wise targets, called PS, with respect to a reference point considered as stable. These targets are represented by hand-made artifacts (e.g., buildings, railways) and/or natural targets, such as rocky outcrops. The measurement of the PS displacement occurs along the satellite line of sight (LOS).
Specifically, the precision on the deformation rate is about 0.1–1 mm/y [
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17] by using satellite InSAR techniques.
Several other approaches have been proposed for the processing of multi-interferometric long series of SAR images; most of them have been satisfactorily compared by [
16] and by [
18].
Among the several approaches, the Small BAseline Subset (SBAS) technique uses small baselines, multilook data and a coherent-based selection criterion [
18,
19].
The ground-based SAR interferometer (GB-InSAR) is a terrestrial system that emits and receives microwaves moving along a rail track, multiple times [
9,
10,
11,
20,
21]. Its cross-range resolution is directly proportional to the length of the rail. This kind of sensor measures both the amplitude and the phase of the radar signal. The phase can be profitably used in order to monitor ground deformation. The GB-InSAR can acquire an image every few minutes, allowing the monitoring of faster movements with respect to the satellite sensors. As regards GB-InSAR techniques, they are able to acquire sub-millimetric deformation rates [
11]. Finally, the possibility to retrieve the temporal evolution of a single landslide(s) system without physical access to the unstable slope or the necessity of positioning any targets on the ground is a great advantage when the observed area is a steep, mountainous slope [
22,
23,
24].
In this paper, in order to improve the applicability of InSAR techniques in the field of landslide monitoring, a proposal of the integration between ground-based and satellite InSAR datasets is presented. The integration is possible thanks to the intrinsic features of the techniques, which can be considered partially complementary, in terms of spatial and temporal resolution.
The integration procedure is based on three main steps: a qualitative integration, with the implementation of a geodatabase to differentiate stable from unstable areas; a semi-quantitative integration, which is based on data homogenization and evaluation of macro-areas with different displacement values; and a quantitative integration, where data can also be analyzed in terms of time series, which can be used to apply forecasting algorithms. This third step is possible only if high precision long time series data are available.
In this work, the Åknes test site has been selected to apply the first and second steps of the proposed procedure. The Åknes rockslide is located on the western coast of Norway, a country highly susceptible to large rockslides due to its numerous fjords, steep topography and high relief [
25]. The Åknes rockslide is an unstable mass rock of about 50 million m
3 [
26]. The unstable area represents a threat, in case of collapse, for the several communities located on the same fjord (Sunnylvsfjorden), mainly in terms of a possible induced tsunami. The availability of GB-InSAR and satellite InSAR data, with a period of overlapping measurements, makes the rockslide suitable to test the proposed integration procedure, in its first and second steps. Thanks to the implementation of this new approach, more precise information on the ground displacement pattern was obtained, together with an implementation in data coverage on the observed scenario. These improvements could be helpful in risk mitigation strategies.
3. Results
The availability of both GB-InSAR and satellite InSAR data, for the overlapping periods of measurements, makes Åknes a suitable case study to test the suggested integration procedure, firstly from a qualitative point of view and later from a semi-quantitative point of view, as proposed in
Figure 1.
3.1. Qualitative Integration Results
During the first step of integration, a qualitative analysis of different available data is required. For the Åknes test site, an orthophoto of the study area is available, together with InSAR datasets. Both satellite and GB-InSAR data refer to a pre-event phase, as the Åknes rockslide has not collapsed yet.
Qualitative data integration has been performed in the GIS environment, overlapping all of the available datasets (shown separately in
Figure 6,
Figure 7 and
Figure 8) on the available orthophoto. Data have been classified into two categories, to distinguish stable areas from unstable areas, independent of data type and relative reference period. The stability threshold has been fixed at 2 mm, according to the accuracy of both the GB-InSAR and satellite InSAR technique (
Figure 9).
The main advantage of this integration step is in the improved density of measurements, which determines an almost complete coverage of the study area. Moreover, the distinction between stable and unstable areas is strongly emphasized:
Figure 9 clearly shows that the main movements occur in the upper portion of the rockslide (first scenario in
Figure 4). This area has been selected to apply the proposed integration methodology, in a more quantitative way.
3.2. Semi-Quantitative Integration Results
Among the available datasets, data referring to a period between July and October 2010 have been selected: this period indeed corresponds to the best overlap between GB-InSAR and satellite datasets.
Firstly, data have been homogenized in terms of LOS. Assuming that the most probable displacement direction is the downslope direction, both GB-InSAR and satellite data have been projected along this chosen direction. The downslope direction, especially for the middle part of the landslide, is indeed considered approximately similar to the real displacement direction, as the rockslide movement can be considered parallel to the topographic surface. In the upper part of the landslide, on the contrary, the main component of movement is vertical.
Starting from LOS displacement values, the objective was to evaluate the percentage of displacement detected by the instrument with respect to the downslope direction and to compare these percentages with the displacement values obtained by GPS campaigns (real displacement values) (
Table 3;
Figure 7).
The results can be summarized in a map showing the percentage of “real” displacement values (considering as “real” the displacements that happen in the downslope direction) detected in each sector of the landslide.
Figure 10 shows the percentages of “real” displacement values detected by the Oaldsbygda SAR system. The upper portion of the landslide (emphasized in black in
Figure 10) represents an area where the displacement direction is almost vertical and, for this reason, barely detectable along the GB-InSAR LOS (detectable displacement: about 30% of total). In any case, except for the upper sector, it is considered acceptable to assume the downslope direction as the direction of real displacement. The remaining portion of the analyzed rockslide sector seems to be highly detectable by the Oaldsbygda instrument, which can observe, along its LOS, a percentage between 60% and 90% of the “real” displacement vector. The map clearly shows a strong correspondence between the percentage of displacement detectable by GB-InSAR, considering as the “real” displacement direction the downslope direction, and the percentage of displacement detectable by GB-InSAR if compared with real displacement values registered by GPSs (
Table 3;
Figure 7).
Satellite InSAR data have also been projected downslope, following the same procedure applied for GB-InSAR datasets.
Because of the two employed satellite platforms being characterized by similar LOS directions (about 76° and 77° in azimuth and about 25° and 28° in look angle), the results of the projections are almost similar, as well (
Figure 11).
Along satellites’ LOS, about 40%–50% on average of the “real” displacement is detectable. Instead, the maximum observable displacement corresponds to 60% of its “real” value. The upper part of the landslide, corresponding to the upper crack, is completely not visible from space-borne platforms (shadow area).
After the projection, the GB-InSAR dataset has been resampled in order to make it comparable to satellite data, in terms of temporal and spatial resolution. Finally, slope displacement values have been calculated (
Figure 12A).
Some observations can be pointed out: first of all, the detectable area from the different sensors is not the same, specifically GB-InSAR data coverage is lower in the middle and lower parts of the slope than the satellite data coverage, which in turn is lacking in the upper part of the landslide, near the major crack. Concerning the displacements, RADARSAT-2 shows very similar patterns to the GB-InSAR datasets (
Figure 12A–C). To better compare the datasets, a restricted period of about three months (from July–October 2010) has been selected in the RADARSAT-2 acquisitions, in order to make it comparable to the available data of the 2010 GB-InSAR campaign.
Data projection allowed displaying the two datasets on the same map (
Figure 12C). Displacement values have been compared; a stability threshold of 5 mm has been fixed. This threshold value is almost similar to the displacement accuracy of the employed satellite datasets.
Displacement values, detected by RADARSAT-2 and the GB-InSAR, agree to define the “middle” part of the landslide (defining as “landslide” only the portion of the rockslide, which is included in the limits that define the most dangerous possible scenario (first scenario in
Figure 4) as concerns the major movement, reaching more than 40 mm of displacement in about three months). The upper part of the landslide, mainly affected by vertical displacements, shows displacement values around 5 mm in the downslope direction: this is probably an underestimation related to the differences between real displacement directions and the downslope direction. A further distinction in two sectors of the first landslide scenario is obtained and presented in
Figure 12C. The upper part of the scenario (in red in
Figure 12) represents the area concerning higher displacements, with respect to the lower part (in yellow in
Figure 12). In
Figure 13, the box plots and the histograms of data referring to the two different identified sectors are displayed. In
Table 4, basic statistical parameters of the four datasets are displayed. Datasets show high dispersion, with a high number of outliers (very high standard deviations, as shown in
Table 4); median values are lower than mean values, indicating negative skewness distributions (
Figure 13B–D). Anyway, statistical analysis supports the identification of the two sectors. As regards the first sector, 50% of the GB-InSAR data distribution ranges between |11| mm and |22| mm; it does not differ so much from the RADARSAT-2 dataset, where 50% of the distribution ranges between |9| mm and |21| mm. Mean and median values detected by GB-InSAR for the first sector are respectively |17| mm and |16| mm; whereas mean and median values detected by RADARSAT-2 in the same sector are |18| mm and |13|mm. Generally, these distributions show higher values than datasets related to the second sector, where 50% of the values registered by GB-InSAR range between |6| mm and |11| mm and 50% of the values detected by RADARSAT-2 range between |4| mm and |9| mm. Mean and median values detected by GB-InSAR for the second sector are respectively |10|mm and |9| mm; instead, RADARSAT-2 distribution mean and median values, in the second sector, are |9| mm and |7| mm (
Figure 12C and
Figure 13,
Table 4). Considering these results, in spite of the high dispersion of the distributions, it is possible to assume that the second sector is affected by lower displacement values than the first sector and that the limit between the two sectors can be fixed at |10| mm.
TerraSAR-X/Tandem-X data, referring to the same period (July–October 2010) have also been projected in the downslope direction and organized in order to be comparable to the other datasets (
Figure 14).
TerraSAR-X/Tandem-X datasets show displacement values lower than values obtained by the RADARSAT-2 platform and GB-InSAR system. This underestimation, as mentioned before, can be mainly related to the higher atmospheric disturbance, concerning new-generation X-band satellites. Anyway, the TerraSAR-X/Tandem-X data comparison with GB-InSAR and RADARSAT-2 datasets can be considered satisfactory from the qualitative point of view.
4. Discussion
The measurement of the superficial displacement of a sliding mass often represents the most effective method for defining its kinematic behavior, allowing one to observe the relationship to triggering factors and to assess the effectiveness of the mitigation measures. Hence, once we suspect an area to be sliding or when dealing with a known landslide, it is mandatory to retrieve accurate and timely updated information on the rate and extent of the occurring deformation. It may be necessary to perform several measurement campaigns to confirm suspected movements, several months to characterize the type of deformation and years of continuous monitoring to fully understand the kinematics of a sliding mass.
Repeat surveys of benchmarks allow the periodic estimation of the extent and rates of deformation. These techniques provide punctual information and are time consuming and resource intensive, since a great deal of time and economic resources are required for timely updates. In most of the cases, these methods produce scattered measurements with an uneven temporal distribution. Indeed, due to the high cost for the establishment and maintenance of an observation network, sparse measurement points are materialized and are infrequently surveyed due to logistics. Considering the characteristics and logistics of the Åknes rockslide, Earth observation and remote sensing have an important role to play for studying landslide-related deformation, as they can regularly measure surface stability over large areas.
It is worth remembering that there is no monitoring system valid for all cases; in fact, every system must be designed purposely for a specific site, because the precursors and monitored parameters may largely vary depending on the type of landslide. Whatever the type of landslide, InSAR-based techniques (both ground based and space borne), thanks to their wide spatial coverage and their millimeter accuracy, are ideally suited to measure the spatial extent and magnitude of landslide-related surface deformation. Outputs from interferometric analysis ensures an almost spatially continuous coverage of information on surface deformation and related hazards. This definitely improves confidence on the spatial pattern of the examined phenomenon.
A further benefit of satellite SAR techniques is the generation of time series of the relative LOS position for each target in correspondence with each SAR acquisition, allowing the analysis of the temporal evolution of displacement and a look back at displacement that already has taken place. The possibility to retrieve a retrospective view of displacement is a unique opportunity for studying the evolution of the uninstrumented sector of a phenomena.
Unlike the conventional ground-based technologies (which record the displacement of targets, specific points or individual reflectors), InSAR, through the generation of interferograms, can provide 2D maps of changes in the satellite-to-target path between the acquisition times of the two SAR scenes. Hence, InSAR provided a significantly increased coverage of information, leading to a better overall understanding of movements of a sliding mass. This aspect is of paramount importance in the about 50 million m3 Åknes rockslide, where a single moving benchmark can be related to localized displacements of an individual block and not to the general instability of the whole landslide body. Moreover, the information coverage allows one to accurately map the extension of the threatened area, its rate of deformation and to define, accordingly, risk scenarios.
The Åknes landslide is a large phenomenon that cannot be stabilized and may accelerate suddenly. The monitoring of its surface displacement is thus crucial for the prevention and forecast of collapse. In the case of the Åknes landslide, the synergic use of multiple SAR sensors (ground based and space borne) can lead to redundant measurements, allowing a more advanced and realistic mapping and classification of the phenomenon and a better understand of the deformation pattern. The redundancy of monitoring data is very important, being the basic condition for the design and implementation of any early warning system. Integrated use of multi-source monitoring data reduces the possibility of missing events or generating false alarms and the consequent loss of confidence and reliability of the system.
In recent years, the improved capabilities of new generation X-band satellites in terms of flexibility and time performance (revisiting time and timeliness of delivery) contributed to the use of satellite SAR sensors as operational monitoring tools [
63,
64]. Remote monitoring represents more and more a tool for surveying and/or early warning.
5. Conclusions
In this work, an attempt to integrate ground-based and satellite InSAR datasets is proposed. The main objective is to improve the knowledge obtainable from InSAR techniques, in the field of landslide mapping and monitoring.
The proposed procedure suggests three main steps to be performed: a qualitative phase, the result of which follows a binary approach, with the distinction, in the observed scenario, of stable and unstable areas; a semi-quantitative phase, where the distinction of macro-areas concerning different displacement ranges is possible; a quantitative integration, during which time series analysis is performed, and forecasting algorithms for the evaluation of the future behavior of the landslide can be applied.
The Åknes Norwegian rockslide has been selected to test the proposed procedure.
Firstly, data acquired by satellite and GB-InSAR platforms have been analyzed separately. Data analysis allows one to define landslide sectors concerning higher displacements, which correspond to the upper portion of the slope. Satellite data have been acquired by RADARSAT-2 and TerraSAR-X/Tandem-X satellite platforms. As in the GB-InSAR acquisitions, satellite data have been acquired in summer seasons. For the application of the integration algorithm, a defined period in the available datasets has been selected. The period between July and October 2010 has been chosen, as it is characterized by the best overlap between ground-based and satellite acquisitions.
The different datasets have been homogenized in terms of spatial and temporal resolution and also as regarding their different LOS. Homogenized data have been integrated and analyzed on the same map, in the GIS environment.
Data integration allowed increasing the data coverage on the observed scenario, which becomes widely detectable. Data projection allowed better defining of the real value of the displacement vector in the observed scenario: projection reliability has been tested comparing its result with data acquired by GPS campaigns, available in the literature. The projection also allowed defining the upper portion of the landslide as the main vertical displacements of concern.
Data integration from a semi-quantitative point of view has also been performed, allowing proposing the distinction of the upper sector of the landslide, defined as concerning higher displacements, into two sub-sections: the upper portion concerning displacements higher than 10 mm in the period between July and October 2010; and the lower portion concerning displacements lower than 10 mm in the same period.
Unfortunately, the unavailability of long time series of the observed datasets made it impossible to obtain also a quantitative integration for the selected test site.